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% Copyright (C) Digital Research, Inc. 1986-1988. All rights reserved.
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%%EndProlog
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%Begin page
UserSoP
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1174 1734 202 0 (Abstract)fjt
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300 1647 1950 13 (This memo describes the Network Time Protocol \(NTP\) designed to distribute time information in)fjt
300 1588 1826 15 (a large, diverse internet system operating at speeds from mundane to lightwave. It uses a retur)fjt
2126 1588 124 0 (nable-)fjt
300 1530 1888 13 (time architecture in which a distributed subnet of time servers operating in a self-organizi)fjt
2188 1530 63 0 (ng,)fjt
300 1472 1851 11 (hierarchical, master-slave configuration synchronizes local clocks within the subnet and to nat)fjt
2151 1472 100 0 (ional)fjt
300 1414 1812 15 (time standards via wire or radio. The servers can also redistribute time information within a n)fjt
2112 1414 138 0 (etwork)fjt
300 1355 939 6 (via local routing algorithms and time daemons.)fjt
300 1268 1950 13 (The architectures, algorithms and protocols which have evolved to NTP over several years of)fjt
300 1210 1931 12 (implementation and refinement are described in this paper. The synchronization subnet which ha)fjt
2231 1210 19 0 (s)fjt
300 1152 1779 16 (been in regular operation in the Internet for the last several years is described along with perf)fjt
2079 1152 171 0 (ormance)fjt
300 1093 1950 13 (data which shows that timekeeping accuracy throughout most portions of the Internet can be)fjt
300 1035 1833 15 (ordinarily maintained to within a few tens of milliseconds, even in cases of failure or disrupt)fjt
2133 1035 117 1 (ion of)fjt
300 977 655 4 (clocks, time servers or networks.)fjt
300 889 1950 14 (This memo describes the Network Time Protocol, which is specified as an Internet Standard in)fjt
300 831 1013 6 (RFC-1119. Distribution of this memo is unlimited.)fjt
300 744 1874 8 (Keywords: network clock synchronization, standard time distribution, fault-tolerant architect)fjt
2174 744 76 0 (ure,)fjt
300 685 1451 5 (maximum-likelihood estimation, disciplined oscillator, Internet protocol.)fjt
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300 3041 532 2 (Network Working Group)fjt
2032 3041 218 2 (D. L. Mills)fjt
300 2982 651 3 (Request for Comments: 1129)fjt
1752 2982 498 2 (University of Delaware)fjt
1948 2924 302 1 (October 1989)fjt
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300 2753 38 0 (1.)fjt
450 2753 259 1 ( Introduction)fjt
713 2753 1500 40 ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .)fjt
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300 2695 75 0 (1.1.)fjt
450 2695 555 2 ( Performance Requirements)fjt
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2225 2695 25 0 (2)fjt
300 2637 75 0 (1.2.)fjt
450 2637 535 3 ( Discussion of Approaches)fjt
1013 2637 1200 32 ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .)fjt
2225 2637 25 0 (3)fjt
300 2579 38 0 (2.)fjt
450 2579 664 4 ( Time Standards and Distribution)fjt
1125 2579 1088 29 ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .)fjt
2225 2579 25 0 (4)fjt
300 2520 38 0 (3.)fjt
450 2520 486 3 ( Network Time Protocol)fjt
938 2520 1275 34 ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .)fjt
2225 2520 25 0 (5)fjt
300 2462 75 0 (3.1.)fjt
450 2462 470 2 ( Implementation Model)fjt
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2225 2462 25 0 (7)fjt
300 2404 113 0 (3.1.1.)fjt
450 2404 414 3 ( Modes of Operation)fjt
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300 2346 113 0 (3.1.2.)fjt
450 2346 282 2 ( Data Formats)fjt
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2225 2346 25 0 (8)fjt
300 2287 113 0 (3.1.3.)fjt
450 2287 315 2 ( State Variables)fjt
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300 2171 75 0 (3.3.)fjt
450 2171 373 2 ( Robustness Issues)fjt
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2200 2171 50 0 (11)fjt
300 2113 38 0 (4.)fjt
450 2113 903 5 ( Sample Processing and Selection Operations)fjt
1388 2113 788 21 ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .)fjt
2200 2113 50 0 (13)fjt
300 2054 75 0 (4.1.)fjt
450 2054 290 2 ( Data Filtering)fjt
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2200 2054 50 0 (13)fjt
300 1996 75 0 (4.2.)fjt
450 1996 298 2 ( Peer Selection)fjt
750 1996 1425 38 ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .)fjt
2200 1996 50 0 (16)fjt
300 1938 38 0 (5.)fjt
450 1938 411 3 ( Local Clock Design)fjt
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2200 1938 50 0 (18)fjt
300 1880 38 0 (6.)fjt
450 1880 557 5 ( NTP in the Internet System)fjt
1013 1880 1163 31 ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .)fjt
2200 1880 50 0 (21)fjt
300 1821 75 0 (6.1.)fjt
450 1821 279 2 ( Time Servers)fjt
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450 1763 490 2 ( Synchronization Subnet)fjt
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450 1705 453 2 ( Performance Analysis)fjt
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300 1647 38 0 (7.)fjt
450 1647 362 2 ( Future Directions)fjt
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300 1355 588 4 (Figure 2. NTP Packet Header)fjt
900 1355 1313 35 ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .)fjt
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300 1297 774 5 (Figure 3. Calculating Delay and Offset)fjt
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1013 1180 1163 31 ( . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .)fjt
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300 831 740 4 (Table 1. Outlyer Selection Procedure)fjt
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300 2746 1950 16 (How do hosts and gateways in a large, dispersed networking community know what time it is? How)fjt
300 2688 1914 15 (accurate are their clocks? In a recent survey involving 94,260 hosts and gateways of the Intern)fjt
2214 2688 36 0 (et)fjt
300 2629 1950 13 (system [MIL89b], 20,758 provided local time using three time-transfer protocols. About half of the)fjt
300 2571 1890 15 (replies had errors greater than two minutes, while ten percent had errors greater than four hours)fjt
2190 2571 61 1 (. A)fjt
300 2513 1950 15 (few had errors over two weeks. Most local clocks are set by eyeball-and-wristwatch to within a)fjt
300 2455 1950 16 (minute or two and rarely checked after that. Many of these are maintained by some sort of)fjt
300 2396 1882 10 (battery-backed clock/calender device using a room-temperature crystal oscillator that may drif)fjt
2182 2396 68 1 (t as)fjt
300 2338 1938 16 (much as a second per day and can go for weeks between manual corrections. For many applications)fjt
2238 2338 13 0 (,)fjt
300 2280 1752 10 (especially distributed internet applications, much greater accuracy and reliability is requ)fjt
2052 2280 90 0 (ired.)fjt
300 2177 1827 13 (Accurate, reliable time is necessary for financial and legal transactions, stocks and bonds tr)fjt
2127 2177 123 0 (ading,)fjt
300 2119 1864 10 (transportation reservation, dispatch and control, and many other applications involving wi)fjt
2164 2119 86 0 (dely)fjt
300 2061 1832 9 (distributed resources. These applications often require multiple, concurrent, real-time acc)fjt
2132 2061 118 1 (ess to)fjt
300 2002 1826 12 (databases distributed over an internet of many networks. Internet time synchronization is nec)fjt
2126 2002 124 0 (essary)fjt
300 1944 1835 11 (for reliable caching, archiving and transaction sequencing. Even the management functions )fjt
2135 1944 115 1 (of the)fjt
300 1886 1938 13 (internet and its component networks need accurate time in order to manage control activation)fjt
2238 1886 13 0 (,)fjt
300 1828 1834 10 (monitoring coordination and significant event timestamping. Coordinated network time is ext)fjt
2134 1828 99 0 (reme)fjt
2234 1828 17 0 (-)fjt
300 1769 1626 11 (ly useful when searching for elusive bugs and transients in day-to-day operations.)fjt
300 1667 1889 14 (This paper presents an overview of the architecture, protocol and algorithms of the Network Ti)fjt
2189 1667 61 0 (me)fjt
300 1609 1874 13 (Protocol \(NTP\) used in the Internet system to synchronize clocks and coordinate time distribut)fjt
2174 1609 76 0 (ion.)fjt
300 1550 1845 12 (The Internet consists of over 100,000 hosts on about 800 packet-switching networks interconn)fjt
2145 1550 105 0 (ected)fjt
300 1492 1189 11 (by a similar number of gateways. In this paper the capitalized )fjt
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1489 1492 157 0 (Internet)fjt
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1646 1492 604 5 ( refers to this particular system,)fjt
300 1434 479 3 (while the uncapitalized )fjt
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779 1434 155 0 (internet)fjt
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934 1434 1317 9 ( refers to any generic system of multiple networks interconnected)fjt
300 1376 1916 13 (by gateways. While the backbone networks and gateways are carefully engineered for good servic)fjt
2216 1376 35 0 (e,)fjt
300 1317 1774 11 (operating speeds and service reliability vary considerably throughout the Internet. This plac)fjt
2074 1317 176 1 (es severe)fjt
300 1259 1950 14 (demands on NTP, which must deliver accurate and reliable time in spite of component failures,)fjt
300 1201 1313 5 (service disruptions and possibly mis-engineered implementations.)fjt
300 1098 1950 13 (In the remainder of this introductory Section 1, issues in the requirements, approaches and)fjt
300 1040 1902 12 (comparisons with previous work are discussed. The architecture of the NTP synchronization subn)fjt
2202 1040 48 0 (et,)fjt
300 982 1875 12 (including the primary time references and distribution mechanisms, is described in Section 2.)fjt
2175 982 75 1 ( An)fjt
300 923 1851 16 (overview of the NTP protocol is given in Section 3 and further intricacies in a formal specific)fjt
2151 923 100 0 (ation)fjt
300 865 1884 11 (and implementation guide published elsewhere [MIL89a]. Section 4 describes the algorithms u)fjt
2184 865 66 0 (sed)fjt
300 807 1873 13 (to improve the accuracy of delay and offset measurements made over statistically noisy inte)fjt
2173 807 77 0 (rnet)fjt
300 749 1854 17 (paths and to select the best clock from among a set of mutually suspicious clocks. Section 5 desc)fjt
2154 749 97 0 (ribes)fjt
300 690 1950 13 (a local clock design based on a first-order, adaptive-parameter phase-lock loop and capable of)fjt
300 632 1870 14 (accuracies to the order of a millisecond, even after extended periods when all synchronization p)fjt
2170 632 80 0 (aths)fjt
300 574 1834 12 (to primary reference sources have been lost. The international NTP synchronization subnet o)fjt
2134 574 116 1 (f time)fjt
300 516 1768 14 (servers and clients now operating on the Internet is described and its performance assessed i)fjt
2068 516 182 1 (n Section)fjt
300 457 1950 15 (6. Further details on measured performance in the Internet can be found in [MIL89b]. Section 7)fjt
300 399 1210 7 (discusses further development and issues for future research.)fjt
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300 2750 1867 18 (In this paper to synchronize frequency means to adjust the clocks in the network to run at the s)fjt
2167 2750 83 0 (ame)fjt
300 2692 1950 16 (frequency, while to synchronize time means to set the clocks so that all agree upon a particular)fjt
300 2634 1950 13 (epoch with respect to Coordinated Universal Time \(UTC\), as provided by national standards, and)fjt
300 2576 1934 14 (to synchronize clocks means to synchronize them in both frequency and time. A clock synchroniza)fjt
2234 2576 17 0 (-)fjt
300 2517 1866 14 (tion subnet operates by measuring clock offsets between the various time servers in the subnet)fjt
2166 2517 84 1 ( and)fjt
300 2459 1778 14 (so is vulnerable to statistical delay variations on the various transmission paths. In the Int)fjt
2078 2459 173 1 (ernet the)fjt
300 2401 1879 14 (paths involved can have wide variations in delay and reliability. The routing algorithms can se)fjt
2179 2401 72 0 (lect)fjt
300 2343 1878 14 (landline or satellite paths, public network or dedicated links or even suspend service without p)fjt
2178 2343 72 0 (rior)fjt
300 2284 134 0 (notice.)fjt
300 2191 1925 13 (It should be noted that stable frequency synchronization in large subnets requires finely tune)fjt
2225 2191 25 0 (d)fjt
300 2133 1867 13 (tracking loops and multiple phase comparisons over relatively long periods of time, while reli)fjt
2167 2133 83 0 (able)fjt
300 2075 1864 11 (time synchronization requires carefully engineered selection algorithms and the use of redun)fjt
2164 2075 86 0 (dant)fjt
300 2016 1925 13 (resources and diverse transmission paths. For instance, while only a few comparisons are usuall)fjt
2225 2016 25 0 (y)fjt
300 1958 1934 16 (adequate to determine local time in the Internet to within a few tens of milliseconds, dozens o)fjt
2234 1958 17 0 (f)fjt
300 1900 1751 13 (measurements over many days are required to reliably resolve oscillator drift and stabilize )fjt
2051 1900 199 0 (frequency)fjt
300 1842 809 6 (to a few milliseconds per day [MIL89b].)fjt
300 1748 1821 11 (Thus, the performance requirements of an internet-based time synchronization system are part)fjt
2121 1748 113 0 (icular)fjt
2234 1748 17 0 (-)fjt
300 1690 1403 10 (ly demanding. A basic set of requirements must include the following:)fjt
300 1595 38 0 (1.)fjt
375 1595 1875 13 (The primary time reference source\(s\) must be synchronized to national standards by wire, radio)fjt
375 1537 1875 14 (or portable clock. The system of time servers and clients must deliver continuous local time)fjt
375 1478 1485 12 (based on UTC, even when leap seconds are inserted in the UTC timescale.)fjt
300 1383 38 0 (2.)fjt
375 1383 1875 13 (The time servers must provide accurate and precise time, even with relatively large stochastic)fjt
375 1325 1875 13 (delays on the transmission paths. This requires careful design of the data smoothing and)fjt
375 1267 1798 12 (deglitching algorithms, as well as an extremely stable local clock oscillator and synchroniza)fjt
2173 1267 78 0 (tion)fjt
375 1209 239 0 (mechanism.)fjt
300 1114 38 0 (3.)fjt
375 1114 1825 12 (The synchronization subnet must be reliable and survivable, even under unstable conditions a)fjt
2200 1114 50 0 (nd)fjt
375 1055 1875 15 (where connectivity may be lost for periods up to days. This requires redundant time servers and)fjt
375 997 1740 10 (diverse transmission paths, as well as a dynamically reconfigurable subnet architecture.)fjt
300 902 38 0 (4.)fjt
375 902 1834 11 (The synchronization protocol must operate continuously and provide update information at rat)fjt
2209 902 41 0 (es)fjt
375 844 1856 11 (sufficient to compensate for the expected wander of the room-temperature crystal oscillator)fjt
2231 844 19 0 (s)fjt
375 785 1776 14 (used in ordinary computer systems. It must operate efficiently with large numbers of time se)fjt
2151 785 99 0 (rvers)fjt
375 727 1875 11 (and clients in continuous-polled and procedure-call modes and in multicast and point-to-point)fjt
375 669 300 0 (configurations.)fjt
300 574 38 0 (5.)fjt
375 574 1875 13 (The system must operate in existing internets including a spectrum of machines ranging from)fjt
375 516 1875 11 (personal workstations to supercomputers, but make minimal demands on the operating system)fjt
375 457 1875 11 (and supporting services. Time-server software and especially client software must be easily)fjt
375 399 494 2 (installed and configured.)fjt
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300 2749 1950 13 (There are many ways that hosts distributed throughout a large geographic area can synchronize)fjt
300 2690 1950 16 (clocks to UTC. In North America the U.S. and Canada operate broadcast radio services with a UTC)fjt
300 2632 1950 13 (timecode modulation which can be decoded by suitable receivers [NBS79]. One approach to time)fjt
300 2574 1950 12 (synchronization is to provide timecode receivers at every site where required. However, these)fjt
300 2516 1925 12 (receivers are specialized, moderately expensive and subject to occasional gross errors due t)fjt
2225 2516 25 0 (o)fjt
300 2457 719 3 (propagation and equipment failures.)fjt
300 2360 1950 12 (The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology \(NIST\) \(formerly National Bureau of)fjt
300 2302 1931 13 (Standards\), recently announced a computer time service available to the general public by mean)fjt
2231 2302 19 0 (s)fjt
300 2244 1950 14 (of a standard telephone modem [NBS88]. The service is intended for use by personal workstations)fjt
300 2185 1837 16 (to set clock-calenders, for example, but would not be suitable for a large population of clients c)fjt
2137 2185 113 0 (alling)fjt
300 2127 1146 7 (on a frequent, regular basis without further redistribution.)fjt
300 2030 1809 13 (In principle, it is possible to use special network facilities designed for time synchronizatio)fjt
2109 2030 141 1 (n, such)fjt
300 1972 1950 16 (as a dedicated FM or TV subcarrier or timecode rebroadcast by a cable system. For many years)fjt
300 1914 1950 10 (AT&T has synchronized digital switching equipment to the Basic Synchronization Reference)fjt
300 1855 1950 14 (Frequency \(BSRF\), which consists of a master oscillator synchronized to UTC and a network of)fjt
300 1797 1886 13 (dedicated 2048-kHz links embedded in the transmission plant. AT&T and other carriers are plann)fjt
2186 1797 64 0 (ing)fjt
300 1739 1950 12 (to use the Global Positioning System and the LORAN-C radionavigation system to synchronize)fjt
300 1681 1950 15 (switches in various areas of the country to UTC. However, neither of these methods would be)fjt
300 1622 1653 10 (economically viable for widespread deployment in a large, diverse internet system.)fjt
300 1525 1950 15 (Various mechanisms have been used in the Internet protocol suite to record and transmit the time)fjt
300 1467 1950 13 (at which an event takes place, including the Daytime protocol [POS83a], Time protocol [POS83b],)fjt
300 1409 1950 12 (ICMP Timestamp message [DAR81a] and IP Timestamp option [SU81]. In the Hellospeak routing)fjt
300 1350 1950 14 (protocol [MIL83b] one or more processes synchronize to an external reference source, such as a)fjt
300 1292 1950 14 (timecode receiver or time daemon, and the corrections are distributed via routing updates and a)fjt
300 1234 1840 12 (minimum-delay spanning tree rooted on these processes. The Unix 4.3bsd time daemon )fjt
/tface 10 def
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2140 1234 111 0 (timed)fjt
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300 1176 1950 16 ([GUS85a] uses an elected master host [GUS85b] to measure offsets of a number of slave hosts and)fjt
300 1117 676 4 (send periodic corrections to them.)fjt
300 1021 1950 13 (Experimental results on measured times and delays in the Internet are discussed in [COL88],)fjt
300 962 1950 10 ([MIL83a] and [MIL85b]. Other synchronization algorithms are discussed in [GUS84], [HAL84],)fjt
300 904 1950 8 ([LAM78], [LAM85], [LUN84], [MAR85], [MIL85a], [MIL85b], [MIL89a], [RIC88], [SCH86],)fjt
300 846 1950 13 ([SRI87] and [TRI86] and protocols based on them in [MIL81], [MIL85c], [MIL89a] and [TRI86].)fjt
300 788 1950 12 (NTP uses techniques evolved from them and both linear systems and Byzantine agreement)fjt
300 729 1950 10 (methodologies. Linear methods for digital telephone network synchronization are summarized in)fjt
300 671 1817 10 ([LIN80], while Byzantine methods for clock synchronization are summarized in [LAM85].)fjt
300 574 1892 16 (In an internet system involving many networks and gateways a useful approach is to equip a f)fjt
2192 574 58 0 (ew)fjt
300 516 1889 11 (strategically located time-server hosts \(or gateways\) with timecode receivers and coordinate ti)fjt
2189 516 61 0 (me)fjt
300 457 1792 12 (distribution using a suitable internet protocol. However, the success of this approach requi)fjt
2092 457 159 1 (res very)fjt
300 399 1928 12 (accurate and reliable mechanisms to process and distribute the time information, since timecod)fjt
2228 399 22 0 (e)fjt
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300 2979 227 1 (RFC 1129)fjt
938 2979 676 2 (Network Time Synchronization)fjt
1949 2979 302 1 (October 1989)fjt
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300 2841 1801 13 (receivers, time servers and the internet itself cannot be considered wholly reliable. While )fjt
2101 2841 149 0 (reliable)fjt
300 2782 1950 11 (clock synchronization has been studied using agreement algorithms [LAM85], [SRI87], in practice)fjt
300 2724 710 7 (it is not possible to distinguish the )fjt
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1010 2724 218 0 (truechimer)fjt
/tface 8 def
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1228 2724 1022 7 ( clocks, which maintain timekeeping accuracy to a)fjt
300 2666 1050 7 (previously published \(and trusted\) standard, from the )fjt
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1350 2666 207 0 (falseticker)fjt
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1556 2666 694 7 ( clocks, which do not, on other than)fjt
300 2608 1840 13 (a statistical basis. In addition, the algorithms and protocols discussed in the literature d)fjt
2140 2608 110 1 (o not)fjt
300 2549 1914 13 (necessarily produce the most accurate time on a statistical basis and may produce unacceptab)fjt
2214 2549 36 0 (le)fjt
300 2491 1397 9 (network overheads and instabilities in a large, diverse internet system.)fjt
300 2403 1950 14 (The above approach was used in the design of the NTP synchronization mechanisms, which were)fjt
300 2345 1890 13 (evolved as the result of numerous experiments, analyses and stepwise refinements over an eight-y)fjt
2190 2345 61 0 (ear)fjt
300 2287 1842 13 (period. It became evident that accurate and reliable internet time synchronization can be ach)fjt
2142 2287 108 0 (ieved)fjt
300 2228 1850 12 (only through a integrated approach to system design including the primary reference sources,)fjt
2150 2228 100 1 ( time)fjt
300 2170 1950 11 (servers, synchronization subnet, protocols and synchronization mechanisms which are at the heart)fjt
300 2112 1873 16 (of this paper. From the analytical point of view the distributed system of NTP time servers oper)fjt
2173 2112 77 0 (ates)fjt
300 2054 1906 13 (as a set of mutually coupled, phase-locked oscillators with phase comparisons exchanged by mea)fjt
2206 2054 44 0 (ns)fjt
300 1995 1794 15 (of update messages and a local clock at each time server functioning as a disciplined oscilla)fjt
2094 1995 156 1 (tor. The)fjt
300 1937 1871 15 (principal features of this design, described in more detail later in this paper, can be summarize)fjt
2171 1937 79 1 (d as)fjt
300 1879 163 0 (follows:)fjt
300 1788 38 0 (1.)fjt
375 1788 1817 11 (The synchronization subnet consists of a self-organizing, hierarchical network of time serv)fjt
2192 1788 58 0 (ers)fjt
375 1730 1212 8 (configured on the basis of estimated accuracy and reliability.)fjt
300 1639 38 0 (2.)fjt
375 1639 1875 11 (The synchronization protocol operates in connectionless mode in order to minimize latencies,)fjt
375 1581 1264 5 (simplify implementations and provide ubiquitous interworking.)fjt
300 1490 38 0 (3.)fjt
375 1490 1875 10 (The synchronization mechanism uses a returnable-time design which tolerates packet loss,)fjt
375 1432 1875 9 (duplication and misordering, together with filtering algorithms based on maximum-likelihood)fjt
375 1374 209 0 (principles.)fjt
300 1283 38 0 (4.)fjt
375 1283 1875 12 (The local clock design is based on a first-order, adaptive-parameter phase-lock loop with)fjt
375 1225 1875 11 (corrections computed using timestamps exchanged along the arcs of the synchronization subnet.)fjt
300 1134 38 0 (5.)fjt
375 1134 1875 12 (Multiply redundant time servers and multiply diverse transmission paths are used in the)fjt
375 1076 1875 11 (synchronization subnet, as well as engineered algorithms which select the most reliable)fjt
375 1017 1357 8 (synchronization source and path using a weighted voting procedure.)fjt
300 927 38 0 (6.)fjt
375 927 1875 14 (System overhead is reduced through the use of dynamic control of polling rates and association)fjt
375 868 254 0 (management)fjt
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300 779 42 0 (2.)fjt
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300 690 1876 15 (Since 1972 the time and frequency standards of the world have been based on International Ato)fjt
2176 690 75 0 (mic)fjt
300 632 1928 14 (Time \(TAI\), which is currently maintained using multiple cesium-beam clocks to an accuracy of )fjt
2228 632 22 0 (a)fjt
300 574 294 3 (few parts in 10)fjt
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594 598 42 0 (12)fjt
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635 574 1599 10 ( [BLA74]. The Bureau International de l'Heure \(BIH\) uses astronomical observa)fjt
2234 574 17 0 (-)fjt
300 516 1880 12 (tions provided by the U.S. Naval Observatory and other observatories to determine corrections)fjt
2180 516 70 1 ( for)fjt
300 457 1895 15 (small changes in the mean solar rotation period of the Earth, which results in Coordinated Univer)fjt
2195 457 55 0 (sal)fjt
300 399 1950 17 (Time \(UTC\). UTC is presently decreasing relative to TAI at a fraction of a second per year, so)fjt
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300 2979 227 1 (RFC 1129)fjt
938 2979 676 2 (Network Time Synchronization)fjt
1949 2979 302 1 (October 1989)fjt
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300 2841 1950 17 (corrections in the form of leap seconds must be inserted from time to time in order to maintain)fjt
300 2782 1950 12 (agreement. The U.S. and many other countries operate standard time and frequency broadcast)fjt
300 2724 1854 15 (stations covering most areas of the world, although only a few utilize a broadcast timecode sui)fjt
2154 2724 97 0 (table)fjt
300 2666 1950 12 (for computer use. The U.S. and Canadian timecodes provide UTC time-of-day, day-of-year and)fjt
300 2608 1950 15 (related information, but not either the year or advance notice of leap seconds, which must be)fjt
300 2549 622 3 (determined from other sources.)fjt
300 2459 1950 13 (A synchronization subnet is a connected network of primary and secondary time servers, clients)fjt
300 2401 1793 13 (and interconnecting transmission paths. A primary time server is directly synchronized to a )fjt
2093 2401 158 0 (primary)fjt
300 2343 1938 11 (reference source, usually a timecode receiver. A secondary time server derives synchronization)fjt
2238 2343 13 0 (,)fjt
300 2285 1805 13 (possibly via other secondary servers, from a primary server over network paths possibly shar)fjt
2105 2285 145 1 (ed with)fjt
300 2226 1793 13 (other services. Under normal circumstances it is intended that the synchronization subnet of )fjt
2093 2226 158 0 (primary)fjt
300 2168 1892 11 (and secondary servers assumes a hierarchical master-slave configuration with the primary serv)fjt
2192 2168 58 0 (ers)fjt
300 2110 1861 14 (at the root and secondary servers of decreasing accuracy at successive levels toward the leave)fjt
2161 2110 32 0 (s.)fjt
300 2017 1886 12 (Following conventions established by the telephone industry, the accuracy of each time serve)fjt
2186 2017 64 1 (r is)fjt
300 1958 1950 16 (defined by a number called the stratum, with the root level \(primary servers\) assigned as one and)fjt
300 1900 1950 13 (each succeeding level towards the leaves \(secondary servers\) assigned as one greater than the)fjt
300 1842 1950 9 (preceding level. Using existing stations, available timecode receivers with propagation-delay)fjt
300 1784 1912 15 (corrections and allowing for sample accumulations up to a week or more, accuracies in the ord)fjt
2212 1784 39 0 (er)fjt
300 1725 1950 16 (of a millisecond can be achieved at the network interface of a primary server [MIL89b]. As the)fjt
300 1667 1906 13 (stratum increases from one, the accuracies achievable will degrade depending on the network pat)fjt
2206 1667 44 0 (hs)fjt
300 1609 1840 14 (and local clock stabilities. In order to avoid the tedious calculations [BRA80] necessary to est)fjt
2140 1609 110 0 (imate)fjt
300 1551 1879 13 (errors in each specific configuration, it is useful to assume the measurement errors accumu)fjt
2179 1551 72 0 (late)fjt
300 1492 1950 14 (approximately in proportion to the total roundtrip path delay to the root of the synchronization)fjt
300 1434 1009 6 (subnet, which is called the synchronizing distance.)fjt
300 1341 1950 13 (Again drawing from the experience of the telephone industry, which learned such lessons at)fjt
300 1283 1852 12 (considerable cost, the synchronization subnet should be organized to produce the highest accu)fjt
2152 1283 98 0 (racy,)fjt
300 1224 1825 14 (but must never be allowed to form a loop, regardless of synchronizing distance. An additional)fjt
2125 1224 125 1 ( factor)fjt
300 1166 1812 13 (is that each increment in stratum involves a potentially unreliable time server which intr)fjt
2112 1166 138 0 (oduces)fjt
300 1108 1820 14 (additional measurement errors. The selection algorithm used in NTP uses a variant of the Be)fjt
2120 1108 130 0 (llman-)fjt
300 1050 1903 11 (Ford distributed routing algorithm [BER87] to compute the minimum-weight spanning trees root)fjt
2203 1050 47 0 (ed)fjt
300 991 1817 16 (on the primary servers. With the foregoing factors in mind, the distance metric used by the alg)fjt
2117 991 133 0 (orithm)fjt
300 933 1950 14 (was chosen using the stratum number as the high-order bits and synchronizing distance as the)fjt
300 875 293 1 (low-order bits.)fjt
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300 781 42 0 (3.)fjt
(l)30 (o)27 (c)29 (o)16 (t)29 (o)18 (r)33 (P)12 ( )27 (e)43 (m)13 (i)29 (T)13 ( )26 (k)19 (r)29 (o)38 (w)15 (t)27 (e)35 (N)13 ( )0 22 350 781 fet
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300 690 1950 16 (The Network Time Protocol \(NTP\) is used to construct and maintain a set of time servers and)fjt
300 632 1950 12 (transmission paths as a synchronization subnet. The protocol was first described in [MIL85c],)fjt
300 574 1758 11 (extensively revised in successive versions and recently established as a formal Internet)fjt
2058 574 193 1 ( Standard)fjt
300 516 1950 13 (protocol [MIL89a]. NTP is built on the Internet Protocol \(IP\) [DAR81b] and User Datagram)fjt
300 457 1950 11 (Protocol \(UDP\) [POS80], which provide a connectionless transport mechanism; however, it is)fjt
300 399 1950 15 (readily adaptable to other protocol suites. It is evolved from the Time Protocol [POS83b] and the)fjt
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300 2979 227 1 (RFC 1129)fjt
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300 2001 1950 11 (ICMP Timestamp Message [DAR81a], but is specifically designed to maintain accuracy and)fjt
300 1943 1840 12 (reliability, even when used over typical Internet paths involving multiple gateways and unre)fjt
2140 1943 110 0 (liable)fjt
300 1885 93 0 (nets.)fjt
300 1797 1760 13 (There is no provision for peer discovery, acquisition, or authentication in NTP itself, altho)fjt
2060 1797 190 1 (ugh some)fjt
300 1739 1918 13 (implementations include these features. Data integrity is provided by the IP and UDP checksum)fjt
2218 1739 32 0 (s.)fjt
300 1681 1874 9 (No circuit-management, duplicate-detection or retransmission facilities are provided or necess)fjt
2174 1681 76 0 (ary.)fjt
300 1623 1950 12 (The protocol can operate in several modes appropriate to different scenarios involving private)fjt
300 1564 1912 10 (workstations, public service machines and various network configurations. A lightweight associ)fjt
2212 1564 22 0 (a)fjt
2234 1564 17 0 (-)fjt
300 1506 1938 8 (tion-management capability, including dynamic reachability and variable polling-rate mechanisms)fjt
2238 1506 13 0 (,)fjt
300 1448 1864 12 (is used to manage state information and reduce resource requirements. Optional features inc)fjt
2164 1448 86 0 (lude)fjt
300 1390 1934 11 (message authentication based on crypto-checksums and provisions for remote control and monitor)fjt
2234 1390 17 0 (-)fjt
300 1331 1950 16 (ing. Since only a single NTP message format is used, the protocol is easily implemented and can)fjt
300 1273 1416 9 (be used in a variety of operating-system and networking environments.)fjt
300 1186 1842 12 (The following subsections contain an overview of the data formats, entities, state variable)fjt
2142 1186 108 1 (s and)fjt
300 1127 1829 13 (procedures used in NTP. Further details are contained in the formal specification. The specifi)fjt
2129 1127 122 0 (cation)fjt
300 1069 1831 16 (is based on the implementation model illustrated below, but it is not intended that this model )fjt
2131 1069 119 1 (be the)fjt
300 1011 1925 15 (only one upon which a specification can be based. In particular, the specification is intended t)fjt
2225 1011 25 0 (o)fjt
300 953 1802 16 (illustrate and clarify the intrinsic operations of NTP and serve as a foundation for a more ri)fjt
2102 953 148 0 (gorous,)fjt
300 894 867 3 (comprehensive and verifiable specification.)fjt
300 807 1950 17 (In what may be the most common client/server modes a client sends an NTP message to one or)fjt
300 749 1790 13 (more time servers, which process the replies as received. A server interchanges addresses, ov)fjt
2090 749 160 0 (erwrites)fjt
300 690 1913 12 (certain fields in the message, recalculates the checksum and returns the message immediatel)fjt
2213 690 38 0 (y.)fjt
300 632 1810 15 (Information included in the NTP message allows the client to determine the server time with )fjt
2110 632 141 0 (respect)fjt
300 574 1770 14 (to local time and adjust the local clock accordingly. In addition, the message includes inf)fjt
2070 574 180 0 (ormation)fjt
300 516 1785 14 (to calculate the expected timekeeping accuracy and reliability, so that inferior data can be d)fjt
2085 516 166 0 (iscarded)fjt
300 457 1903 15 (and only the best from possibly several servers can be selected. While the client/server modes m)fjt
2203 457 47 0 (ay)fjt
300 399 1844 15 (suffice for use on LANs involving a public time server and perhaps many private workstation cl)fjt
2144 399 106 0 (ients,)fjt
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300 2841 1832 13 (the full generality of NTP requires distributed participation of a number of client/servers or)fjt
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300 2782 1752 9 (arranged in a dynamically reconfigurable, hierarchically distributed configuration. It als)fjt
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300 2477 169 1 (Figure 1)fjt
469 2477 1782 12 ( shows an implementation model for a time-server host including three processes sharing)fjt
300 2419 1826 15 (a partitioned data base, with a partition dedicated to each peer, and interconnected by a me)fjt
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300 2361 1892 13 (passing system. The transmit process, driven by independent timers for each peer, collects inf)fjt
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300 2302 1950 16 (mation in the data base and sends NTP messages to the peers. Each message contains the local)fjt
300 2244 1950 12 (timestamp when the message is sent, together with previously received timestamps and other)fjt
300 2186 1950 11 (information necessary to determine the hierarchy and manage the association. The message)fjt
300 2128 1815 16 (transmission rate is determined by the accuracy required of the local clock, as well as the est)fjt
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300 2069 450 3 (accuracies of its peers.)fjt
300 1969 1950 14 (The receive process receives NTP messages and perhaps messages in other protocols, as well as)fjt
300 1910 1950 12 (information from directly connected timecode receivers. When a message is received the offset)fjt
300 1852 1950 16 (between the peer clock and the local clock is computed and incorporated into the data base along)fjt
300 1794 1673 12 (with other information useful for error estimation and peer selection. A filtering algori)fjt
1973 1794 277 1 (thm described)fjt
300 1736 1258 9 (in Section 4 improves the estimates by discarding inferior data.)fjt
300 1635 1781 16 (The update procedure is initiated upon receipt of a message and at other times. It processes t)fjt
2081 1635 169 1 (he offset)fjt
300 1577 1925 17 (data from each peer and selects the best one using the selection algorithm of Section 4. This ma)fjt
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300 1518 1903 16 (involve many observations of a few peers or a few observations of many peers, depending on t)fjt
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300 1460 397 1 (accuracies required.)fjt
300 1360 1898 14 (The local-clock process operates upon the offset data produced by the update algorithm and adju)fjt
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300 1301 1950 16 (the phase and frequency of the local clock using the mechanism described in Section 5. This may)fjt
300 1243 1863 18 (result in either a step change or a gradual slew adjustment of the local clock to reduce the offs)fjt
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300 1185 1878 17 (zero. The local clock provides a stable source of time information to other users of the system )fjt
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300 1127 782 5 (for subsequent reference by NTP itself.)fjt
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300 923 1950 16 (An NTP association is formed when two peers exchange messages and one or both of them create)fjt
300 865 1870 16 (and maintain an instantiation of the protocol machine. The machine can operate in one of five mo)fjt
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300 807 1848 12 (symmetric active, symmetric passive, client, server and broadcast. When an association is fo)fjt
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300 749 1911 16 (one or both peers must be operating in an active mode \(symmetric active, client or broadcast\), )fjt
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300 690 1897 15 (which the active peer sends messages to the other peer regardless of the mode, reachability state)fjt
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300 632 1911 17 (stratum of the other peer. If due to crash restart or defective programming both peers are found )fjt
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300 516 1821 14 (the other, so that eventually each will find the other unreachable and demobilize the associat)fjt
2121 516 129 1 (ion. In)fjt
300 457 1950 16 (symmetric passive and server modes the identity of the other peer need not be known in advance,)fjt
300 399 1871 14 (since an association with persistent state variables is created only when an NTP message arri)fjt
2171 399 79 0 (ves.)fjt
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300 2841 1886 14 (Furthermore, the state storage can be reused when the peer becomes unreachable or begins operat)fjt
2186 2841 64 0 (ing)fjt
300 2782 1325 10 (at a higher stratum and thus ineligible as a synchronization source.)fjt
300 2690 1950 12 (The symmetric modes are intended for distributed scenarios where either peer can potentially)fjt
300 2632 1950 15 (become the reference source for the other. By operating in these modes a host announces its)fjt
300 2574 1950 14 (willingness to synchronize to and be synchronized by the peer. Symmetric active mode is designed)fjt
300 2516 1876 15 (for use by hosts operating near the leaves \(high stratum levels\) of the synchronization subnet, w)fjt
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300 2457 1950 15 (symmetric passive mode is designed for use by hosts operating near the root \(low stratum levels\))fjt
300 2399 1729 15 (and with a relatively large number of peers on an intermittent basis. Reliable time service )fjt
2029 2399 221 1 (can usually)fjt
300 2341 1938 18 (be maintained with two peers at the next lower stratum level and one peer at the same stratum level)fjt
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300 2283 1892 16 (so the rate of ongoing polls is usually not significant, even when connectivity is lost and er)fjt
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300 2224 1216 9 (messages are being returned from the network for every poll.)fjt
300 2128 1950 13 (Broadcast mode is intended for operation with high speed LANs and numerous workstations where)fjt
300 2069 1917 15 (the highest accuracies are not required. In the typical scenario one or more LAN time-server hos)fjt
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300 2011 1950 13 (send periodic NTP messages to the LAN broadcast address. The LAN workstations then determine)fjt
300 1953 1874 17 (the time on the basis of a preconfigured latency in the order of a few milliseconds. By operatin)fjt
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300 1895 1925 15 (this mode the host announces its willingness to provide synchronization to the peers, but not t)fjt
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300 1740 1856 14 (The client and server modes are intended for operation with file servers and workstations requ)fjt
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300 1681 1900 13 (the highest accuracies or where broadcast mode is unavailable or inappropriate. A host operati)fjt
2200 1681 50 0 (ng)fjt
300 1623 1928 17 (in client mode sends periodic NTP messages to one or more servers. By operating in this mode th)fjt
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300 1565 1843 14 (host announces its willingness to be synchronized by, but not to provide synchronization to the)fjt
2143 1565 107 1 ( peer.)fjt
300 1507 1863 12 (A host operating in server mode simply interchanges the source and destination addresses/p)fjt
2163 1507 87 0 (orts,)fjt
300 1448 1912 15 (fills in the requested timestamps and returns the message to the client. Hosts operating in serv)fjt
2212 1448 39 0 (er)fjt
300 1390 1878 14 (mode need retain no state information between client requests, while clients are free to manage)fjt
2178 1390 73 1 ( the)fjt
300 1332 1837 14 (intervals between messages to suit local conditions. By operating in this mode the host anno)fjt
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300 1078 1865 11 (All mathematical operations assumed in the protocol are two's-complement arithmetic with int)fjt
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300 1020 1950 14 (or fixed-point operands. Since NTP timestamps are cherished data and, in fact, represent the main)fjt
300 962 1950 15 (product of the protocol, a special format has been established. An NTP timestamp is a 64-bit)fjt
300 904 1800 16 (unsigned fixed-point number, with the integer part in the first 32 bits and the fraction part in)fjt
2100 904 151 2 ( the last)fjt
300 845 1950 17 (32 bits and interpreted in standard seconds relative to UTC. When UTC began at zero hours on 1)fjt
300 787 1950 13 (January 1972 the NTP clock was set to 2,272,060,800.0, representing the number of standard)fjt
300 729 1520 12 (seconds since this time on 1 January 1900 \(assuming no prior leap seconds\).)fjt
300 632 1846 10 (This format allows convenient multiple-precision arithmetic and conversion to other formats)fjt
2146 632 104 1 ( used)fjt
300 574 1950 14 (by various protocols of the Internet suite. The precision of this representation is about 232)fjt
300 516 1928 14 (picoseconds, which should be adequate for even the most exotic requirements. Note that since som)fjt
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300 457 1859 19 (time in 1968 the most significant bit of the 64-bit field has been set and that the field will over)fjt
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300 399 1950 18 (some time in 2036. Should NTP be in use in 2036, some external means will be necessary to qualify)fjt
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300 1794 1934 12 (time relative to 1900 and subsequent 136-year cycles. Timestamped data requiring such qualifica)fjt
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300 1735 1490 11 (tion will be so precious that appropriate means should be readily available.)fjt
300 1638 1889 15 (Timestamps are determined by copying the current value of the local clock to a timestamp varia)fjt
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300 1580 1934 16 (when some significant event occurs, such as the arrival of a message. In some cases a particula)fjt
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300 1522 1909 18 (variable may not be available, such as when the host is rebooted or the protocol first starts up. )fjt
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300 1130 1852 14 (Following is a summary description of the important variables and parameters used by the prot)fjt
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300 1071 1892 16 (In appropriate modes a set of state variables is maintained for the host itself along with separ)fjt
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300 1013 1766 14 (copies for each peer with an active association. Further information on these variables is g)fjt
2066 1013 184 1 (iven later)fjt
300 955 1177 9 (in this paper. A complete description is given in [MIL89a].)fjt
300 847 168 1 (Figure 2)fjt
468 847 1782 13 ( shows the NTP packet-header format, which ordinarily follows the IP and UDP headers.)fjt
300 789 940 7 (Following is a description of the various fields.)fjt
300 680 1171 7 (Version Number \(VN\). Identifies the present NTP version.)fjt
300 569 1914 16 (Leap Indicator \(LI\). Warns of an impending leap second to be inserted or deleted in the timesca)fjt
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375 509 571 6 (at the end of the current day.)fjt
300 399 1710 10 (Mode, Stratum, Precision. Indicate the current operating mode, stratum and precision.)fjt
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974 2348 576 3 (Receive Timestamp \(64 bits\))fjt
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931 2061 662 3 (Authenticator \(optional\) \(96 bits\))fjt
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981 1887 588 4 (Figure 2. NTP Packet Header)fjt
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300 2979 227 1 (RFC 1129)fjt
938 2979 676 2 (Network Time Synchronization)fjt
1949 2979 302 1 (October 1989)fjt
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300 281 100 0 (Mills)fjt
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300 2839 1836 16 (Poll Interval. Controls the intervals between NTP messages sent by the host to a peer. The se)fjt
2136 2839 114 0 (nding)fjt
375 2779 1600 14 (host always uses the minimum of its own poll interval and the peer poll interval.)fjt
300 2687 1950 9 (Synchronizing Distance, Synchronizing Dispersion. Indicate the estimated roundtrip delay and)fjt
375 2627 1484 8 (estimated sample dispersion, respectively, to the primary reference source.)fjt
300 2535 1849 12 (Reference Clock Identifier, Reference Timestamp. Identify the reference clock and the time )fjt
2149 2535 102 1 (of its)fjt
375 2475 1156 6 (last update, intended primarily for management functions.)fjt
300 2383 1950 13 (Originate Timestamp. The time when the last received NTP message was originated, copied from)fjt
375 2323 812 5 (its transmit timestamp field upon arrival.)fjt
300 2231 1590 11 (Receive Timestamp. The local time when the latest NTP message was received.)fjt
300 2139 1665 11 (Transmit Timestamp. The local time when the latest NTP message was transmitted.)fjt
300 2047 1867 11 (Authenticator \(optional\). The key identifier and encrypted checksum of the message contents.)fjt
300 1956 1860 15 (The NTP protocol machine maintains state variables for each of the above quantities and, in addi)fjt
2160 1956 90 0 (tion,)fjt
300 1898 904 5 (other state variables, including the following:)fjt
300 1807 1804 15 (Addresses and Ports. The 32-bit Internet addresses and 16-bit port numbers of the host and it)fjt
2104 1807 146 1 (s peers,)fjt
375 1747 777 5 (which serve to identify the association.)fjt
300 1655 1744 12 (Peer Timer. A counter used to control the intervals between transmitted NTP messages.)fjt
300 1563 1802 13 (Reachability Register. A shift register used to determine the reachability status of the peer.)fjt
300 1471 1843 15 (Filter Register. A shift register where each stage stores a tuple consisting of the measured dela)fjt
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300 1319 1881 10 (Delay Estimate, Offset Estimate, Dispersion Estimate. Indicate the current estimated round)fjt
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300 1167 1827 13 (Clock Source. A selector identifying the current clock source determined by the selection proc)fjt
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300 1075 1484 12 (Local Clock. The current local time as derived from the host logical clock.)fjt
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300 896 1931 17 (The significant events of interest in NTP occur upon expiration of a peer timer, one of which i)fjt
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300 838 1950 16 (dedicated to each peer with an active association, and upon arrival of an NTP message from the)fjt
300 780 1950 16 (various peers. An event can also occur as the result of an operator command or detected system)fjt
300 722 1862 14 (fault, such as a primary clock failure. This subsection describes the procedures invoked when t)fjt
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300 663 263 1 (events occur.)fjt
300 574 1950 17 (The transmit procedure is called when a peer timer decrements to zero and can occur in all modes)fjt
300 516 1900 17 (except server mode. When this occurs the peer timer is reset and an NTP message is sent includi)fjt
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300 457 1876 15 (the addresses, variables and timestamps described above. The value used to reset the timer is ca)fjt
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300 399 1740 12 (the polling interval and is adjusted dynamically to reflect network peer path conditions.)fjt
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300 2329 1950 16 (The receive procedure is called upon arrival of an NTP message, which is then matched with the)fjt
300 2271 1760 15 (peer association indicated by its addresses and ports. If there is no match a new instantiat)fjt
2060 2271 190 2 (ion of the)fjt
300 2213 1906 14 (protocol machine is created and the peer association mobilized. Following a set of sanity chec)fjt
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300 2154 1810 15 (the roundtrip delay and clock offset relative to the peer are calculated as follows. Number th)fjt
2110 2154 141 1 (e times)fjt
300 2096 1206 10 (of sending and receiving NTP messages as shown in Figure 3)fjt
1506 2096 153 3 ( and let )fjt
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300 1723 1950 13 (This method amounts to a continuously sampled, returnable-time system, which is used in some)fjt
300 1665 1950 14 (digital telephone networks. Among the advantages are that the order and timing of the messages)fjt
300 1607 1137 8 (are unimportant and that reliable delivery is not required.)fjt
300 1507 206 2 (The offset )fjt
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539 1507 1711 14 ( is then checked for validity relative to the estimated maximum skew and stated precision)fjt
300 1449 1224 12 (of the host and peer clocks. The filter procedure is called with )fjt
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1688 1449 563 5 ( as arguments to produce the)fjt
300 1391 1752 11 (estimated delay, offset and dispersion for the peer involved. The minimum-filter algorithm)fjt
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300 1274 843 4 (outbound and inbound transmission paths.)fjt
300 1175 1950 13 (The update procedure is called when a new delay/offset estimate becomes available. A weighted)fjt
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300 632 1931 15 (It has been the experience of the Internet community that something somewhere in the system i)fjt
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300 574 1950 14 (always broken at any given time. This caveat applies to timecode receivers, time servers and)fjt
300 516 1950 13 (synchronization paths, any of which can misbehave to produce a bogus timestamp popularly known)fjt
300 457 86 2 (as a )fjt
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386 457 188 0 (timewarp)fjt
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574 457 1676 13 (. The very nature of time synchronization requires that it be extremely robust against)fjt
300 399 1950 13 (timewarps and capable of operation even when major breakdowns or attempted breakins occur. This)fjt
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1469 2688 88 0 (Peer)fjt
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888 2417 774 5 (Figure 3. Calculating Delay and Offset)fjt
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938 2979 676 2 (Network Time Synchronization)fjt
1949 2979 302 1 (October 1989)fjt
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300 2841 1898 13 (subsection describes some of the measures taken to deal with these problems, including reachabil)fjt
2198 2841 53 0 (ity)fjt
300 2782 1339 6 (determination, authentication, sequence checking and polling rates.)fjt
300 2692 1950 11 (As shown previously, reliable time synchronization does not require reliable message delivery;)fjt
300 2634 1950 14 (however, in order to minimize resource requirements, resist using very old data and manage the)fjt
300 2576 1903 14 (number of associations required, a simple reachability protocol is used. Each time an NTP messa)fjt
2203 2576 47 0 (ge)fjt
300 2518 1840 16 (is sent an eight-bit reachability register is shifted one position to the left and the low-order po)fjt
2140 2518 111 0 (sition)fjt
300 2459 1914 19 (set to zero. If an NTP message is received before the next message is sent, the low-order bit is s)fjt
2214 2459 36 0 (et)fjt
300 2401 1866 17 (to one. The peer is considered reachable if the register is nonzero, which will always be the ca)fjt
2166 2401 84 1 (se if)fjt
300 2343 1820 14 (at least one message is received during eight consecutive transmit intervals. In the passive )fjt
2120 2343 130 0 (modes)fjt
300 2285 1950 13 (if a peer becomes unreachable, the association is demobilized and its resources reclaimed for)fjt
300 2226 1887 12 (subsequent associations. This shift-register mechanism has also been found most effective in ot)fjt
2187 2226 64 0 (her)fjt
300 2168 1272 7 (Internet protocols designed to survive unstable network service.)fjt
300 2075 1881 13 (While not a required feature of NTP itself, some implementations have included an access-con)fjt
2181 2075 69 0 (trol)fjt
300 2017 1867 14 (feature that prevents unauthorized access and controls which peers are allowed to update the l)fjt
2167 2017 83 0 (ocal)fjt
300 1959 1950 14 (clock. This is done with tables of mask-and-match entries which allow only servers with Internet)fjt
300 1901 1800 15 (addresses in certain ranges to become peers and to update the local clock. In principle, this)fjt
2100 1901 150 1 ( feature)fjt
300 1842 1900 14 (is not necessarily desirable, since the basic NTP design involving a large degree of diversity)fjt
2200 1842 50 1 ( is)fjt
300 1784 1798 13 (intended to cast out falsetickers whether they are authenticated or not. Nevertheless, the ad)fjt
2098 1784 152 0 (ditional)fjt
300 1726 1540 8 (authentication feature may help to deflect multiple-peer destructive jamming.)fjt
300 1633 1885 15 (During the course of normal operation various peers may on occasion restart the NTP program its)fjt
2185 1633 65 0 (elf,)fjt
300 1575 1860 16 (either due to loss of reachability, reboot or other trauma, which results in loss of state informa)fjt
2160 1575 90 0 (tion.)fjt
300 1517 1903 15 (Special sanity checks are built into the receive procedure to avoid disruption in such cases. O)fjt
2203 1517 47 0 (ne)fjt
300 1458 1950 14 (check requires the transmit timestamp of a received message to be different than the transmit)fjt
300 1400 1936 17 (timestamp of the last message received. If they are the same, the message is a duplicate and mus)fjt
2236 1400 14 0 (t)fjt
300 1342 1950 15 (have been circulating in the network for some time after the last message was received, thus)fjt
300 1284 1864 12 (containing relatively inferior data. Another check requires the originate timestamp of a rece)fjt
2164 1284 86 0 (ived)fjt
300 1225 1871 15 (message to be identical to the transmit timestamp of the last message transmitted. If they do)fjt
2171 1225 79 1 ( not)fjt
300 1167 1837 15 (match, the message is either out of order, from a previous association or bogus. Additional c)fjt
2137 1167 113 0 (hecks)fjt
300 1109 1855 12 (protect against using very old time information and from associations not completely synchron)fjt
2155 1109 95 0 (ized.)fjt
300 1016 1874 11 (Where security considerations require the highest level of protection against message modificat)fjt
2174 1016 76 0 (ion,)fjt
300 958 1815 11 (replay and other overt attacks, the NTP specification includes optional cryptographic authent)fjt
2115 958 135 0 (ication)fjt
300 899 1876 13 (procedures. The procedures are used to insure an unbroken chain of authenticated peers along)fjt
2176 899 74 1 ( the)fjt
300 841 1827 12 (synchronization subnet to the primary servers. An authenticator, consisting of a key identifi)fjt
2127 841 123 1 (er and)fjt
300 783 1934 12 (encrypted checksum, is computed using the DES encryption algorithm and DES cipher block-chain)fjt
2234 783 17 0 (-)fjt
300 725 1899 10 (ing method. Present implementations have incorporated special provisions to avoid degradation)fjt
2199 725 51 1 ( in)fjt
300 666 1586 10 (timekeeping accuracy due to the delays caused by the encryption computations.)fjt
300 574 1862 12 (Careful consideration was given during design to factors affecting network overheads. Many o)fjt
2162 574 88 1 (f the)fjt
300 516 1950 15 (present Internet primary time servers operate with 100 peers or more and some operate with many)fjt
300 457 1845 13 (more than that. Therefore, it is important that the longest polling intervals consistent wit)fjt
2145 457 105 1 (h the)fjt
300 399 1931 15 (required accuracy and reliability be used. When reachability is first confirmed and when a peer i)fjt
2231 399 19 0 (s)fjt
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300 2841 1728 13 (currently selected for synchronization it is necessary to use a relatively short polling int)fjt
2028 2841 222 2 (erval in the)fjt
300 2782 1829 15 (order of a minute. In those cases where the association has stabilized, the dispersions are lo)fjt
2129 2782 122 1 (w and)fjt
300 2724 1808 13 (the peer is not selected for synchronization, the polling interval can be increased substanti)fjt
2108 2724 143 1 (ally. In)fjt
300 2666 1925 15 (the present design the polling interval is increased gradually from about one minute to about 1)fjt
2225 2666 25 0 (7)fjt
300 2608 1866 12 (minutes as long as the dispersion is below an experimentally determined threshold; otherwise,)fjt
2166 2608 85 2 ( it is)fjt
300 2549 1816 15 (decreased gradually to the initial value. These values may change as the result of further expe)fjt
2116 2549 134 0 (rience.)fjt
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300 2449 42 0 (4.)fjt
(s)29 (n)30 (o)12 (i)16 (t)27 (a)18 (r)27 (e)29 (p)38 (O)13 ( )29 (n)30 (o)12 (i)16 (t)27 (c)26 (e)13 (l)27 (e)32 (S)13 ( )29 (d)30 (n)27 (a)12 ( )30 (g)29 (n)13 (i)27 (s)27 (s)26 (e)27 (c)30 (o)18 (r)32 (P)13 ( )27 (e)12 (l)30 (p)43 (m)27 (a)32 (S)13 ( )0 43 350 2449 fet
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300 2349 1829 18 (At the very heart of the NTP design are the algorithms used to improve the accuracy of the esti)fjt
2129 2349 122 0 (mated)fjt
300 2291 1837 18 (offsets and delays between the host and its various peers, as well as those used to select a part)fjt
2137 2291 113 0 (icular)fjt
300 2233 1881 12 (peer for synchronization. The complexity of these algorithms depends on the statistical proper)fjt
2181 2233 69 0 (ties)fjt
300 2175 1950 15 (of the transmission path and the accuracies required. In the case of LANs operating at megabit)fjt
300 2116 1876 16 (speeds and above the path delays are usually smaller than the required accuracies, so the raw off)fjt
2176 2116 74 0 (sets)fjt
300 2058 1871 15 (delivered by the receive procedure can often be used directly to adjust the local clock. Howeve)fjt
2171 2058 79 1 (r, in)fjt
300 2000 1950 14 (the case of paths involving many network hops via regional and backbone networks such as)fjt
300 1942 1950 14 (NSFNET, the path delays and delay variances can be much larger than acceptable without further)fjt
300 1883 238 1 (processing. )fjt
300 1772 1797 12 (Since Internet paths often involve multiple hops over networks of widely varying character)fjt
2097 1772 153 1 (istics, it)fjt
300 1713 1928 15 (is not possible to design one set of algorithms optimized for a particular path. Therefore, th)fjt
2228 1713 22 0 (e)fjt
300 1655 1787 10 (development of algorithms appropriate for ubiquitous Internet application has involved a)fjt
2087 1655 163 1 ( process)fjt
300 1597 1897 13 (of stepwise refinement, beginning with the designs suggested in [MIL85a], refined as the results)fjt
2197 1597 53 1 ( of)fjt
300 1539 1950 13 (experiments described in [MIL85b] and [MIL89b] and evolved over several years of operation under)fjt
300 1480 1819 12 (widely varying conditions of path qualities and reliabilities. In following subsections the )fjt
2119 1480 131 0 (issues,)fjt
300 1422 1165 8 (approaches and designs of these algorithms are discussed. )fjt
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300 1309 83 0 (4.1.)fjt
(g)29 (n)13 (i)18 (r)27 (e)15 (t)13 (l)13 (i)29 (F)13 ( )27 (a)15 (t)27 (a)35 (D)13 ( )0 15 383 1309 fet
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300 1210 1934 13 (A number of algorithms for deglitching and filtering time-offset data have been described pre)fjt
2234 1210 17 0 (-)fjt
300 1152 1950 13 (viously, such as in [MIL85a], [HAL84] and [KOP87]. These fall in two classes: majority-subset)fjt
300 1093 1881 14 (algorithms, which attempt to separate good subsets from bad by comparing statistics such as m)fjt
2181 1093 69 0 (ean)fjt
300 1035 1809 13 (and variance, and clustering algorithms, which attempt to improve the estimate by repeatedly )fjt
2109 1035 141 0 (casting)fjt
300 977 1801 17 (out outlyers. The former class was suggested as a technique to select the best \(i.e., the most r)fjt
2101 977 149 0 (eliable\))fjt
300 919 1862 16 (clocks from a population, while the latter class was suggested as a technique to improve the o)fjt
2162 919 88 0 (ffset)fjt
300 860 1135 9 (estimate for a single clock given a series of observations.)fjt
300 749 1770 11 (After further development and experimentation using typical Internet paths, a better algor)fjt
2070 749 180 1 (ithm was)fjt
300 690 1832 14 (found for casting out outlyers from a continuous stream of offset observations spaced at int)fjt
2132 690 119 0 (ervals)fjt
300 632 1915 18 (in the order of minutes. The algorithm can be described as a variant of a median filter, in which)fjt
2215 632 35 1 ( a)fjt
300 574 1950 14 (window consisting of the last n sample offsets is continuously updated and the median sample)fjt
300 516 1877 13 (selected as the estimate. However, in the modified algorithm the outlyer \(sample furthest from)fjt
2177 516 73 1 ( the)fjt
300 457 1907 16 (median\) is then discarded and the entire process repeated until only a single sample offset is le)fjt
2207 457 43 0 (ft,)fjt
300 399 1950 16 (which is then produced as the offset estimate. This algorithm was found to be more resistant to)fjt
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300 2979 227 1 (RFC 1129)fjt
938 2979 676 2 (Network Time Synchronization)fjt
1949 2979 302 1 (October 1989)fjt
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300 1809 1854 17 (glitches and to provide a more accurate estimate than the unmodified one. It was used in the Fuz)fjt
2154 1809 97 0 (zball)fjt
300 1750 1367 11 (and Unix implementations for about two years until the end of 1987.)fjt
300 1643 1950 11 (Recent experiments have demonstrated an even better algorithm which provides higher accuracy)fjt
300 1585 1875 14 (together with a lower computational burden. The key to the new algorithm became evident thro)fjt
2175 1585 75 0 (ugh)fjt
300 1527 1903 13 (an examination of scatter diagrams plotting clock offset versus roundtrip delay. Recall that t)fjt
2203 1527 47 0 (he)fjt
300 1469 309 2 (roundtrip delay )fjt
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646 1469 325 4 ( and clock offset )fjt
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1004 1469 1246 9 ( are computed from the four most recently observed timestamps.)fjt
300 1410 1878 13 (Without making any assumptions about the delay distributions due to queueing delays for traffi)fjt
2178 1410 72 1 (c in)fjt
300 1352 1824 14 (either direction along the path, but assuming the intrinsic frequency offsets of the host an)fjt
2124 1352 127 1 (d peer)fjt
300 1294 586 5 (clocks are relatively small, let )fjt
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1063 1294 1187 11 ( represent the delay and offset when no other traffic is present)fjt
300 1236 1656 15 (on the path and so represents the true values. The problem is to accurately estimate )fjt
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2141 1236 109 1 ( from)fjt
300 1177 468 4 (a sample population of )fjt
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935 1177 781 6 ( collected over a relatively long period.)fjt
300 1050 168 1 (Figure 4)fjt
468 1050 1089 10 ( shows a typical scatter diagram in which the points \(d)fjt
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1614 1050 636 5 (\) are concentrated near the apex)fjt
300 992 1950 16 (of a wedge defined by lines extending from the apex with slopes +0.5 and -0.5, corresponding to)fjt
300 934 1823 17 (the locus of points as the delay in one direction increases while the delay in the other directio)fjt
2123 934 127 1 (n does)fjt
300 876 1178 11 (not. From these data it is obvious that good estimators for \()fjt
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1579 876 638 6 (\) would be points near the apex.)fjt
300 749 1862 14 (Upon reflection, the reason for the particular distribution of points in the scatter diagram ca)fjt
2162 749 88 1 (n be)fjt
300 690 1950 14 (explained as follows. Packet-switching nets are most often operated well below the knee of the)fjt
300 632 1950 12 (throughput-delay curve, which means the busy periods are relatively short and infrequent. In)fjt
300 574 1843 12 (addition, the routing algorithm most often operates to minimize the number of packet-switch)fjt
2143 574 107 1 ( hops)fjt
300 516 1881 17 (and thus the number of queues. Thus, not only is the probability that an arriving NTP packet fi)fjt
2181 516 69 0 (nds)fjt
300 457 1831 16 (a busy queue in one direction relatively low, but the probability of packets from a single exc)fjt
2131 457 119 0 (hange)fjt
300 399 1053 8 (finding busy queues in both directions is even lower.)fjt
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658 1996 translate 300 72 div dup scale
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%%CreationDate: Mon Aug 28 15:00:51 1989
%%Pages: (atend)
%%EndComments
/$Sdict 25 dict def $Sdict begin
%   variables

/basesize 160 def

/oldcex	1 def
/cex	1 def
/ratio	1 def
/pch	(*) def
/coffset basesize -0.345 mul def	% vertical offset for characters
/pcxshift 0 def

%   procedures

/checksize	% adjust font size if needed.  Stack: cex
  {
     /cex exch def
     oldcex cex ne	% scale sizes
       { 
	 /ratio cex oldcex div def
	 /TextFont TextFont ratio scalefont def
	 /PchFont PchFont ratio scalefont def
	 /coffset coffset ratio mul def
	 /oldcex cex def
       } if
  } def

/Pchar		%  the plot character.  Stack: string cex
  {
     checksize
     /pch exch def
     pch (.) eq		% replace period by bullet
       { (\267) pch copy pop } if
     pch (,) eq		% replace comma by middot
       { (\264) pch copy pop } if
     /PchFont TextFont def
     pch (*) eq pch (+) eq or  % switch to symbol font for these characters
       { /PchFont /Symbol findfont basesize oldcex mul scalefont def } if
     PchFont setfont
     pch stringwidth pop neg 2 div /pcxshift exch def
  } def

/M {moveto} def	% move to a point.  Stack: x y

/L {lineto} def % line to a point.  Stack: x y

/S {stroke} def

/P		% plot a character at a point.   Stack: x y
  {
     M			% move to the point
     pcxshift coffset rmoveto	% offset for the character
     pch show
  } def

/T		% show a text string. Stack: adj srot cex x y string
  { /str exch def
    M			% move to the point (pops x and y)
    checksize		% change size if necessary (pops cex)
    TextFont setfont
    dup rotate exch	% (moves adj to top)
    str stringwidth pop neg mul	% pops adj
    coffset rmoveto
    str show
    neg rotate
  } def

/Sub 	%add a subscript.  Stack: string srot
  {
     oldcex 0.75 mul checksize
     TextFont setfont
     dup rotate
     oldcex -0.5 mul basesize mul 0 exch rmoveto
     exch show
     oldcex 0.5 mul basesize mul 0 exch rmoveto
     neg rotate
     oldcex 4 3 div mul checksize TextFont setfont
  } def

/Sup 	%add a superscript.  Stack: string srot
  {
     oldcex 0.75 mul checksize
     TextFont setfont
     dup rotate
     oldcex 0.5 mul basesize mul 0 exch rmoveto
     exch show
     oldcex -0.5 mul basesize mul 0 exch rmoveto
     neg rotate
     oldcex 4 3 div mul checksize TextFont setfont
  } def

/F		% change the base font. Stack: fontname
  {
    /TextFont exch findfont basesize oldcex mul scalefont def
    /PchFont TextFont def
  } def

/ST		% text in Symbol font. Stack: (as for T)
  {
    /Symbol F T /Helvetica-Bold F
  } def

0.1 0.1 scale	%integer coordinates in 1/10's of a point
1 setlinecap 1 setlinejoin
/Helvetica-Bold F
%%EndProlog
%%Page: 1 1
gsave newpath
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2144 4037 P
2474 4019 P
2883 4254 P
2202 4057 P
4340 4636 P
4678 4568 P
2429 4012 P
2015 4052 P
2745 4224 P
2843 4110 P
3097 4267 P
2171 4105 P
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2126 4045 P
(,) 1 Pchar
4731 3297 P
(,) 1 Pchar
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1997 4057 P
(,) 1 Pchar
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4273 3709 P
2175 4057 P
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2157 4024 P
1984 4060 P
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2024 4070 P
2024 4047 P
2100 4060 P
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2273 4090 P
2295 4050 P
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2113 4052 P
2144 4085 P
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2113 4088 P
3672 4446 P
3551 4035 P
2509 4204 P
2291 4093 P
2385 4055 P
2768 4181 P
2385 4105 P
2870 4174 P
(,) 1 Pchar
3360 3749 P
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2131 4080 P
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2113 4095 P
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2282 4143 P
2135 4055 P
2220 4126 P
2019 4065 P
2184 4100 P
2028 4050 P
2652 4214 P
1993 4070 P
2171 4027 P
2215 4095 P
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2108 4088 P
2091 4090 P
3342 4270 P
3191 3921 P
(,) 1 Pchar
2251 4070 P
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2224 4085 P
2215 4070 P
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2091 4030 P
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2108 4060 P
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2166 4098 P
2064 4083 P
3382 4368 P
2238 4045 P
2010 4065 P
2580 4151 P
2064 4045 P
2901 4302 P
2425 3933 P
2750 4199 P
4161 4631 P
2429 4186 P
2046 4047 P
3208 4340 P
2491 4027 P
3070 4282 P
2095 4030 P
2180 4040 P
1988 4070 P
2010 4052 P
2264 4009 P
1993 4067 P
2540 4194 P
2189 4065 P
2972 4280 P
2585 4204 P
2006 4062 P
2037 4070 P
3921 4080 P
2135 4017 P
3173 3764 P
2166 4078 P
2776 3916 P
2010 4050 P
2135 4072 P
2162 4113 P
2580 3966 P
2153 4030 P
2327 4108 P
2362 4105 P
2385 4176 P
2589 4009 P
2010 4055 P
2126 4083 P
2385 4019 P
2166 4024 P
2037 4052 P
2340 4078 P
2117 4055 P
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3284 3891 P
3275 3699 P
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2042 4057 P
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2082 4088 P
2665 4196 P
2068 4078 P
2211 4019 P
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2500 4120 P
2144 4017 P
2340 4019 P
2059 4072 P
2144 4113 P
2264 4012 P
2162 4075 P
2019 4065 P
2126 4050 P
2166 4030 P
2380 4163 P
2051 4052 P
2042 4042 P
2255 4100 P
1993 4062 P
2131 4042 P
2166 4088 P
2149 4083 P
2077 4067 P
2282 4123 P
2113 4072 P
2509 4189 P
2162 4100 P
2362 4012 P
2157 4088 P
2264 3994 P
4322 4727 P
2122 4105 P
2140 4062 P
2224 4100 P
2202 4123 P
2638 4161 P
2304 4105 P
1988 4065 P
2411 4047 P
1984 4060 P
2202 4085 P
2033 4047 P
2015 4060 P
1993 4070 P
2269 4050 P
2100 4055 P
2233 4067 P
2046 4072 P
2304 4113 P
2322 4115 P
2122 4057 P
2042 4067 P
2122 4100 P
2224 4047 P
2554 4163 P
2108 4040 P
2104 4085 P
2189 4052 P
2166 4022 P
2251 4037 P
2291 4027 P
2220 4098 P
2002 4070 P
1993 4060 P
2042 4072 P
2478 4083 P
2295 3984 P
2295 4067 P
2558 4146 P
2224 4060 P
2010 4060 P
2264 4090 P
2064 4040 P
2233 4035 P
3044 3837 P
2460 4158 P
2140 4105 P
2549 3913 P
2046 4045 P
2937 3989 P
2131 4080 P
2371 3949 P
2184 4072 P
2113 4037 P
1993 4070 P
2140 4078 P
2491 3999 P
2068 4070 P
2549 3987 P
2211 4060 P
2634 3898 P
2287 4022 P
2157 4088 P
2197 4004 P
2059 4050 P
2122 4098 P
2046 4055 P
2091 4052 P
2051 4065 P
2024 4070 P
2010 4060 P
2465 4186 P
2068 4078 P
2077 4057 P
2028 4065 P
2327 4035 P
2122 4057 P
2051 4062 P
2131 4065 P
2086 4072 P
2808 4285 P
2215 4095 P
2006 4067 P
2108 4088 P
2180 4045 P
2772 3997 P
2144 4098 P
2006 4075 P
2117 4065 P
2233 4126 P
2184 4115 P
2010 4067 P
2295 4113 P
2460 4166 P
2536 4146 P
2149 4085 P
2042 4075 P
2206 4007 P
2019 4052 P
2015 4067 P
2131 4060 P
2215 3999 P
2002 4065 P
2015 4055 P
2273 4141 P
2042 4075 P
2082 4040 P
2064 4060 P
2153 4052 P
2068 4067 P
2046 4050 P
2193 4083 P
2425 4189 P
2126 4062 P
1979 4067 P
2336 4120 P
2678 3944 P
2336 4065 P
2220 4100 P
2144 4095 P
2126 4085 P
2059 4080 P
2273 4060 P
2358 4110 P
2184 4093 P
2068 4040 P
2002 4072 P
2095 4093 P
2046 4083 P
2104 4045 P
2037 4075 P
1984 4060 P
2037 4080 P
2077 4057 P
2046 4042 P
2002 4060 P
2153 4088 P
2002 4057 P
2091 4050 P
1970 4065 P
2082 4060 P
2051 4055 P
2037 4047 P
1966 4062 P
2028 4050 P
2064 4047 P
2149 4098 P
2055 4060 P
2157 4045 P
2193 4078 P
2100 4027 P
2269 4143 P
2091 4027 P
2091 4047 P
2233 3992 P
2051 4057 P
2104 4088 P
2104 4035 P
2117 4098 P
2442 4168 P
2037 4070 P
2126 4075 P
2024 4055 P
2002 4062 P
1975 4065 P
2140 4027 P
2046 4047 P
2082 4062 P
2865 3875 P
2416 4123 P
2002 4072 P
2140 4067 P
3204 3731 P
2010 4062 P
2327 3971 P
2077 4047 P
2015 4075 P
1997 4065 P
2246 4143 P
2656 3873 P
2019 4072 P
2206 4103 P
2082 4100 P
2104 4080 P
2144 4067 P
2028 4062 P
2140 4090 P
2019 4070 P
2064 4080 P
2055 4070 P
2010 4047 P
2229 4113 P
2313 4042 P
2095 4085 P
2055 4055 P
2042 4072 P
2019 4072 P
2046 4062 P
2246 4143 P
2113 4035 P
2108 4024 P
2189 4027 P
2091 4070 P
2180 4090 P
2518 4189 P
2131 4035 P
2082 4095 P
2019 4062 P
1984 4060 P
2211 4093 P
2545 3916 P
1988 4065 P
2220 4009 P
2153 4030 P
2033 4062 P
2051 4057 P
2042 4083 P
2059 4060 P
1975 4065 P
2064 4045 P
2024 4057 P
2206 4004 P
1984 4070 P
2068 4037 P
2122 4083 P
2028 4052 P
2015 4075 P
2224 4004 P
2153 4108 P
1993 4070 P
2033 4065 P
2086 4095 P
2131 4045 P
2825 4254 P
2843 3843 P
2331 4136 P
2300 4085 P
2100 4078 P
2362 4156 P
2131 4085 P
3640 3767 P
2336 4088 P
2144 4035 P
2028 4060 P
2117 4075 P
2073 4045 P
2028 4052 P
2055 4052 P
2229 3992 P
2122 4050 P
2015 4057 P
1984 4065 P
2478 3979 P
2144 4080 P
2442 4161 P
2108 4060 P
2051 4083 P
2002 4070 P
2100 4027 P
2678 4093 P
2108 4055 P
2224 4070 P
2434 4186 P
2166 4090 P
2064 4052 P
2082 4060 P
2906 3807 P
2019 4060 P
2059 4083 P
2291 4065 P
2465 4120 P
1993 4067 P
1997 4070 P
2108 4075 P
2024 4055 P
2086 4065 P
2037 4052 P
2238 4131 P
2015 4075 P
2033 4075 P
2002 4057 P
2002 4055 P
2108 4100 P
2033 4075 P
2010 4075 P
2140 4062 P
2006 4075 P
2108 4065 P
2220 3999 P
2215 4017 P
2224 4014 P
2042 4080 P
1984 4062 P
2131 4019 P
2095 4042 P
2086 4075 P
2131 4047 P
2091 4030 P
2100 4037 P
2033 4055 P
2042 4080 P
2086 4090 P
2220 4030 P
1997 4067 P
2064 4057 P
2010 4057 P
2037 4070 P
2140 4037 P
2019 4072 P
2353 4098 P
2064 4055 P
2460 4085 P
2438 3933 P
2028 4067 P
2149 4090 P
2140 4060 P
2010 4057 P
2037 4055 P
2064 4090 P
2002 4057 P
2469 3971 P
2162 4042 P
1997 4060 P
2033 4047 P
2206 4012 P
1975 4065 P
2830 4297 P
2024 4057 P
2086 4050 P
2077 4035 P
2914 4270 P
2108 4045 P
2282 4126 P
2585 4201 P
2469 4141 P
2914 4229 P
2131 4072 P
2674 4019 P
2215 4060 P
2300 4070 P
2006 4060 P
2051 4062 P
2024 4060 P
2478 4174 P
2393 3944 P
2140 4088 P
1997 4067 P
2166 4035 P
2291 4146 P
2082 4088 P
2028 4047 P
2010 4057 P
1984 4062 P
2006 4067 P
2135 4067 P
2086 4090 P
2055 4057 P
2037 4047 P
2153 4060 P
2171 4024 P
2879 4196 P
2830 3822 P
2153 4035 P
2233 4070 P
2019 4050 P
2068 4083 P
2006 4055 P
2002 4067 P
2095 4090 P
2037 4060 P
2073 4067 P
2064 4052 P
2122 4050 P
2024 4065 P
1988 4065 P
1979 4060 P
2113 4032 P
1993 4060 P
2006 4070 P
2068 4095 P
1988 4070 P
2082 4035 P
2963 4310 P
2367 3954 P
2122 4095 P
2558 3976 P
2197 4105 P
2108 4060 P
2033 4080 P
2808 4065 P
2113 4078 P
2108 4037 P
2100 4045 P
2175 4012 P
2380 3994 P
2318 4146 P
2082 4047 P
2055 4047 P
2015 4052 P
2051 4052 P
2091 4075 P
2215 4032 P
2073 4047 P
2166 4065 P
2309 4062 P
2193 4032 P
2108 4057 P
2429 4105 P
2046 4055 P
2046 4067 P
2149 4108 P
1988 4065 P
2242 4060 P
2002 4060 P
1966 4062 P
2006 4062 P
2358 4138 P
2327 4095 P
(,) 1 Pchar
2465 3999 P
2082 4065 P
2229 4057 P
2469 4191 P
2563 4035 P
2215 4042 P
2051 4060 P
2175 4045 P
2732 4055 P
2367 4158 P
2616 3878 P
2157 4030 P
2086 4055 P
2059 4062 P
2251 4019 P
2122 4080 P
2215 4014 P
2710 4259 P
2313 4123 P
2068 4060 P
2135 4085 P
1966 4062 P
2059 4083 P
2487 4168 P
2024 4067 P
2010 4072 P
2095 4095 P
2033 4070 P
2006 4075 P
2046 4080 P
2064 4075 P
2033 4070 P
2086 4040 P
3084 3769 P
2006 4075 P
2010 4062 P
2131 4047 P
2006 4060 P
2068 4055 P
2166 4103 P
2028 4078 P
2175 4030 P
2010 4062 P
2687 3891 P
2549 3923 P
2028 4065 P
2037 4067 P
1984 4062 P
2006 4067 P
1997 4050 P
2015 4075 P
1997 4065 P
2015 4062 P
2055 4050 P
2082 4075 P
2104 4100 P
2055 4045 P
2002 4067 P
1984 4062 P
2015 4067 P
2140 4083 P
2019 4062 P
2300 3989 P
2046 4050 P
3017 4312 P
2157 4115 P
1988 4070 P
2002 4057 P
2028 4078 P
2042 4055 P
2068 4055 P
2006 4065 P
2238 4118 P
1975 4062 P
2037 4050 P
2175 4103 P
2264 4012 P
2059 4055 P
2100 4075 P
2042 4047 P
2460 4166 P
1993 4060 P
1984 4072 P
2153 4078 P
2010 4055 P
2567 3898 P
2153 4030 P
2091 4035 P
3084 3769 P
2064 4045 P
3444 3653 P
2073 4042 P
2077 4035 P
2095 4060 P
2024 4062 P
2251 3992 P
2251 4057 P
2278 4078 P
2095 4045 P
2028 4072 P
2051 4060 P
2180 4045 P
2051 4080 P
2171 4085 P
1993 4067 P
2091 4085 P
2006 4055 P
2055 4037 P
2135 4042 P
2068 4093 P
2741 4264 P
2358 4118 P
2024 4070 P
2091 4065 P
2117 4067 P
2015 4070 P
2238 4126 P
2117 4024 P
2425 3994 P
2140 4024 P
2309 4050 P
2175 4055 P
2376 3994 P
2197 4070 P
1970 4065 P
2073 4093 P
2059 4078 P
2100 4078 P
2189 4037 P
2073 4093 P
2082 4037 P
2144 4105 P
2131 4090 P
2157 4047 P
2215 4037 P
2033 4057 P
2113 4032 P
2024 4055 P
2153 4024 P
2287 4017 P
2108 4080 P
2336 4148 P
2157 4012 P
2095 4055 P
2006 4062 P
2803 3903 P
2108 4060 P
2135 4100 P
2229 4070 P
3235 4403 P
3346 4360 P
2117 4067 P
2086 4072 P
2193 4055 P
2184 4009 P
2037 4072 P
3106 3959 P
2002 4065 P
2010 4060 P
2117 4024 P
2131 4080 P
2108 4100 P
2046 4060 P
2019 4062 P
2149 4055 P
2469 4105 P
2246 4146 P
2189 4083 P
2046 4075 P
2157 4024 P
2206 4017 P
3039 4300 P
1975 4060 P
2162 4080 P
2149 4062 P
2033 4065 P
2082 4037 P
2082 4065 P
1997 4070 P
2082 4037 P
2189 4075 P
2140 4045 P
2153 4055 P
2197 4098 P
2073 4045 P
2799 3853 P
2091 4042 P
2474 4090 P
2028 4065 P
2171 4032 P
2251 4093 P
2318 4052 P
2104 4052 P
2144 4052 P
2197 4118 P
2068 4093 P
2051 4055 P
2042 4072 P
2322 4126 P
2144 4075 P
2812 3853 P
2180 4080 P
2166 4032 P
2042 4065 P
3026 3795 P
2171 4088 P
2166 4042 P
2108 4088 P
2184 4009 P
2126 4047 P
2496 4171 P
2407 4019 P
2193 4072 P
2603 4211 P
3133 3757 P
2411 4052 P
3271 4353 P
2416 4093 P
2117 4042 P
2166 4060 P
2126 4065 P
2197 4075 P
2242 4085 P
2585 3918 P
2883 4199 P
2291 4113 P
2269 3992 P
2857 4024 P
2656 4055 P
3008 4100 P
2126 4075 P
2122 4088 P
2594 4002 P
2082 4072 P
2246 4120 P
2629 4234 P
2629 4133 P
2117 4078 P
2091 4050 P
2371 4128 P
2331 4131 P
2086 4075 P
2269 4100 P
2260 4105 P
2189 4065 P
2162 4050 P
2255 4017 P
2580 4214 P
2514 4204 P
2309 4136 P
2393 4113 P
2051 4072 P
2077 4070 P
2086 4040 P
2028 4057 P
2229 4080 P
2082 4062 P
2393 3974 P
2701 4254 P
3859 3580 P
3547 4441 P
2367 4007 P
2135 4080 P
2848 4204 P
2380 3949 P
2959 4186 P
2327 4118 P
2625 3936 P
2304 4030 P
2790 4224 P
2585 4151 P
2033 4072 P
2211 4131 P
2104 4037 P
1988 4067 P
2055 4083 P
2073 4050 P
2100 4088 P
2189 4078 P
2015 4078 P
2024 4070 P
2104 4067 P
2879 4098 P
3164 3729 P
2309 4007 P
2046 4075 P
2006 4060 P
2874 3807 P
2051 4070 P
2037 4062 P
2175 4098 P
2580 4163 P
2197 4123 P
2051 4045 P
(,) 1 Pchar
2393 4181 P
2033 4057 P
2193 4095 P
2144 4100 P
4682 4295 P
2518 4174 P
2046 4062 P
2768 4189 P
3137 4353 P
2077 4052 P
2215 4133 P
2206 4126 P
2202 4113 P
2411 4176 P
2153 4030 P
2465 4090 P
2117 4030 P
2425 4158 P
2362 4103 P
2193 4072 P
2278 4088 P
2857 4242 P
2215 4060 P
2246 4098 P
2251 4027 P
2153 4060 P
2140 4062 P
2340 4050 P
2091 4055 P
2180 4093 P
2220 3999 P
3284 4419 P
2273 4045 P
2612 4171 P
2002 4052 P
2073 4088 P
2331 4163 P
1993 4057 P
2184 4115 P
2064 4035 P
2144 4110 P
2180 4095 P
2068 4055 P
2055 4078 P
2033 4078 P
2104 4042 P
2180 4032 P
2117 4075 P
2193 4050 P
2224 4067 P
2184 4113 P
2153 4052 P
2215 4037 P
2019 4065 P
2055 4062 P
3213 4396 P
2215 4080 P
2042 4055 P
2064 4067 P
2643 4237 P
2006 4065 P
2318 4115 P
2242 4103 P
2002 4067 P
2197 4103 P
2785 3855 P
2059 4042 P
2376 3949 P
2126 4062 P
(,) 1 Pchar
2914 4264 P
2812 4184 P
(,) 1 Pchar
2340 4090 P
2033 4067 P
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3155 4280 P
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3306 4421 P
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2015 4075 P
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3048 4237 P
2229 4083 P
3596 4295 P
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2184 4002 P
4046 4254 P
2242 4050 P
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2166 4083 P
2304 4075 P
2398 4128 P
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2046 4050 P
2135 4088 P
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2015 4055 P
1988 4065 P
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(,) 1 Pchar
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2015 4062 P
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1984 4062 P
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2015 4062 P
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2010 4067 P
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2914 4186 P
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300 2841 1950 15 (From the above discussion one would expect that, at low utilizations and hop counts, the points)fjt
300 2782 1928 16 (should be concentrated about the apex of the wedge and begin to extend rightward along the extrem)fjt
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300 2724 1925 15 (lines as the utilizations and hop counts increase. As the utilizations and hop counts continue t)fjt
2225 2724 25 0 (o)fjt
300 2666 1950 16 (increase, the points should begin to fill in the wedge as it expands even further rightward. This)fjt
300 2608 1950 14 (behavior is in fact what is observed on typical Internet paths involving ARPANET, NSFNET and)fjt
300 2549 268 1 (regional nets.)fjt
300 2461 1815 16 (These observations cast doubt on the median-filter approach as a good way to cast out offset o)fjt
2115 2461 135 0 (utlyers)fjt
300 2403 1931 14 (and suggests another approach which might be called a minimum filter. From the scatter diagram)fjt
2231 2403 19 0 (s)fjt
300 2344 1950 15 (it is obvious that the best offset samples occur at the lower delays. Therefore, an appropriate)fjt
300 2286 916 8 (technique would be simply to select from the )fjt
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1241 2286 1010 8 ( most recent samples the sample with lowest delay)fjt
300 2228 1770 15 (and use its associated offset as the estimate. Several experiments were designed to test this t)fjt
2070 2228 180 0 (echnique)fjt
300 2170 1950 12 (using measurements between selected hosts equipped with timecode receivers, so that delays and)fjt
300 2111 1787 11 (offsets could be determined independent of the measurement procedure itself. The experime)fjt
2087 2111 163 1 (nts were)fjt
300 2053 1950 13 (performed over several paths involving ARPANET, NSFNET and local nets and using both median)fjt
300 1995 1795 14 (and minimum filters of varying lengths. The results show consistently lower errors for the m)fjt
2095 1995 155 0 (inimum)fjt
300 1937 1909 15 (filter when compared with the median filter of similar length. Perhaps the most dramatic result )fjt
2209 1937 42 0 (of)fjt
300 1878 1878 16 (the minimum filter is the greatly reduced maximum error at the upper end of the throughput ra)fjt
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300 1820 1950 14 ([MIL89b]. Based on these data the minimum filter was selected as the preferred algorithm. Since)fjt
300 1762 1218 11 (its performance did not seem to much improve for values of )fjt
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1543 1762 707 6 ( above eight, this value was chosen)fjt
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300 1615 1856 14 (In the reference implementation the clock filter procedure is executed upon arrival of an )fjt
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300 1557 1950 15 (message or other event that results in new delay/offset sample pairs. New sample pairs are shifted)fjt
300 1498 1800 17 (into an eight-stage shift register from the left end, causing old entries to shift off the right en)fjt
2100 1498 151 1 (d. Then)fjt
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300 1324 1258 11 (chosen as the corresponding values of the first entry on the list.)fjt
300 1235 1840 16 (For subsequent processing and use in the clock selection algorithm it is useful to have an est)fjt
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300 1177 1903 15 (of sample dispersion. A good dispersion estimate which weights samples near the apex of the wed)fjt
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300 1118 1887 16 (most heavily and is easily computable is simply the weighted sum of the offsets in the tempor)fjt
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300 1002 567 5 (order of increasing delay. If )fjt
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300 399 1699 12 (match typical offset distributions. The reference implementation use the values 0.5 for )fjt
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300 2841 70 1 (for )fjt
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489 2841 1762 14 (. The dispersion estimate is intended for use as a quality indicator, with increasing values)fjt
300 2782 1867 14 (associated with decreasing quality and given less weight in the clock selection algorithm. The )fjt
2167 2782 83 0 (sum)fjt
300 2724 1886 15 (of the total path dispersions to the root of the synchronization subnet is called the synchroniz)fjt
2186 2724 64 0 (ing)fjt
300 2666 217 0 (dispersion.)fjt
300 2573 1950 16 (In the hope that offset accuracy could be improved through the use of more than just the)fjt
300 2515 1903 11 (minimum-delay filter sample, experiments were made involving various types of averages weight)fjt
2203 2515 47 0 (ed)fjt
300 2457 1950 14 (both by zero, first and second-order dispersion. The results using eleven peer paths measured over)fjt
300 2399 1950 14 (four weeks demonstrate little improvement over the simple method, which is now used in the)fjt
300 2340 522 1 (reference implementation.)fjt
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300 2242 83 0 (4.2.)fjt
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300 2149 1852 13 (The single most important contributing factor in maintaining high reliability with NTP is the)fjt
2152 2149 99 1 ( peer)fjt
300 2091 1923 16 (selection mechanism. When new offset estimates are produced for a peer or are revised as the resu)fjt
2223 2091 28 0 (lt)fjt
300 2032 1950 16 (of timeout, this mechanism is used to determine which peer should be selected as the clock source.)fjt
300 1974 1950 15 (A good deal of research has gone into mechanisms to synchronize clocks in a community where)fjt
300 1916 1851 14 (some clocks cannot be trusted. Determining whether a particular clock is a truechimer or falset)fjt
2151 1916 99 0 (icker)fjt
300 1858 1950 14 (is an interesting abstract problem which can be attacked using methods such as described in)fjt
300 1799 924 4 ([LAM78], [LAM85], [MAR85] and [SCH86].)fjt
300 1701 1854 13 (In methods described in the literature a convergence function operates upon the offsets betwee)fjt
2154 1701 96 1 (n the)fjt
300 1643 1783 15 (clocks in a system to increase the reliability by reducing or eliminating errors caused by fals)fjt
2083 1643 167 0 (etickers.)fjt
300 1585 1759 11 (There are two classes of convergence functions, those involving interactive convergence a)fjt
2059 1585 191 0 (lgorithms)fjt
300 1527 1738 8 (and those involving interactive consistency algorithms. Interactive convergence algo)fjt
2038 1527 212 1 (rithms use)fjt
300 1468 1810 11 (statistical clustering techniques such as the fault-tolerant average algorithm of [HAL84], th)fjt
2110 1468 140 1 (e CNV)fjt
300 1410 1898 10 (algorithm of [LUN84], the majority-subset algorithm of [MIL85a], the non-Byzantine algorithm)fjt
2198 1410 52 1 ( of)fjt
300 1352 1896 13 ([RIC88], the egocentric algorithm of [SCH86] and the algorithm described below in this paper.)fjt
300 1254 1911 11 (Interactive consistency algorithms are designed to detect faulty clock processes which mig)fjt
2211 1254 39 0 (ht)fjt
300 1196 1686 11 (indicate grossly inconsistent offsets in successive readings or to different readers. The)fjt
1986 1196 265 1 (se algorithms)fjt
300 1138 1873 12 (use an agreement protocol involving successive rounds of readings, possibly relayed and poss)fjt
2173 1138 78 0 (ibly)fjt
300 1079 1950 12 (augmented by digital signatures. Examples include the fireworks algorithm of [HAL84] and the)fjt
300 1021 1830 12 (optimum algorithm of [SRI87]. However, these algorithms require an excessive burden of mes)fjt
2130 1021 120 0 (sages,)fjt
300 963 1928 15 (especially when large numbers of clocks are involved, and are designed to detect faults that hav)fjt
2228 963 22 0 (e)fjt
300 905 1880 14 (rarely been found in the Internet experience. For these reasons they are not considered furthe)fjt
2180 905 70 1 (r in)fjt
300 846 207 1 (this paper.)fjt
300 749 1848 15 (The basic principles guiding the design of the NTP clock selection procedure are based on maxi)fjt
2148 749 103 0 (mum)fjt
300 690 1925 11 (likelihood techniques and the experimental observation that the highest reliability is usuall)fjt
2225 690 25 0 (y)fjt
300 632 1950 12 (associated with the lowest stratum and synchronizing dispersion, while the highest accuracy is)fjt
300 574 1906 12 (usually associated with the lowest stratum and synchronizing distance. A key design assumption)fjt
2206 574 45 1 ( is)fjt
300 516 1826 11 (that truechimers are relatively numerous and represented by random variables narrowly distr)fjt
2126 516 125 0 (ibuted)fjt
300 457 1925 13 (about UTC in the measurement space, while falsetickers are relatively rare and represented b)fjt
2225 457 25 0 (y)fjt
300 399 1435 7 (random variables widely distributed throughout the measurement space.)fjt
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300 2161 1873 14 (The NTP clock selection procedure begins by constructing a list of candidate peers sorted firs)fjt
2173 2161 77 1 (t by)fjt
300 2103 1877 15 (stratum and then by synchronizing dispersion via the peer to the root of the synchronization sub)fjt
2177 2103 73 0 (net.)fjt
300 2044 1931 16 (To be included on the candidate list the peer must pass certain sanity checks. One check require)fjt
2231 2044 19 0 (s)fjt
300 1986 1861 16 (that the clock selection for the peer must not be the host itself; otherwise, a synchronization )fjt
2161 1986 89 0 (loop)fjt
300 1928 1950 15 (would be formed. Another check requires that the dispersion be bounded by a value which insures)fjt
300 1870 1853 16 (that the filter registers are at least half full, which avoids using data from low quality associa)fjt
2153 1870 97 0 (tions)fjt
300 1811 1864 13 (or obviously broken implementations. If no candidates pass the sanity checks, the existing c)fjt
2164 1811 86 0 (lock)fjt
300 1753 1747 15 (selection, if any, is cancelled and the local clock free-runs at its intrinsic frequency. The )fjt
2047 1753 203 2 (list is then)fjt
300 1695 1903 18 (pruned from the end to be no longer than a maximum size, currently set to five. Starting from t)fjt
2203 1695 47 0 (he)fjt
300 1637 1724 17 (beginning, the list is truncated at the first entry where the number of different strata in the )fjt
2024 1637 226 1 (list exceeds)fjt
300 1578 1834 15 (a maximum, currently set to two. This particular procedure and choice of parameters has been )fjt
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300 1520 1950 12 (to produce reliable synchronization candidates over a wide range of system environments while)fjt
300 1462 1903 10 (minimizing the "pulling" effect of high-stratum, high-dispersion peers, especially when lar)fjt
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300 1300 1797 14 (The final procedure is designed to detect falsetickers or other conditions which might result )fjt
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300 1973 334 3 (about one. For )fjt
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300 807 1950 14 (Conversion to and from the common date and time formats used by application programs is)fjt
300 749 1934 15 (simplified with separate date and time software registers. The time register is designed to roll ove)fjt
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300 399 655 5 (turned off at the primary servers.)fjt
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300 2751 1876 18 (The use of NTP in the Internet has steadily increased over the last few years. It is estimated )fjt
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300 2635 1888 16 (or indirectly via a LAN time server itself synchronized to an NTP time server. In this section)fjt
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300 2337 1845 14 (The Fuzzball [MIL88] is a software package consisting of a fast, compact operating system, su)fjt
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300 2278 1788 13 (for the Internet architecture and an array of application programs for network protocol devel)fjt
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2171 2220 80 1 (s its)fjt
300 2162 1950 14 (name, and functions as a multi-purpose packet switch, gateway and service host. The Fuzzball is)fjt
300 2104 1726 13 (specially designed for applications requiring accuracies in the order of a millisecond, so i)fjt
2026 2104 224 1 (t represents)fjt
300 2045 1870 11 (an ideal platform for the development and testing of time-synchronization architectures, proto)fjt
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300 1987 1925 14 (and algorithms, including those described in this paper. NTP and its forebears were developed an)fjt
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300 1871 1802 14 (specification. Fuzzballs are presently installed at 18 locations in the U.S. and Europe, most o)fjt
2102 1871 148 1 (f which)fjt
300 1812 1950 13 (function primarily as time servers for ARPANET, MILNET and NSFNET hosts and gateways. Ten)fjt
300 1754 1950 15 (of these, synchronized to UTC via radio or satellite, are part of the NTP primary synchronization)fjt
300 1696 1683 11 (subnet, while the remainder are part of the NTP secondary synchronization network.)fjt
300 1604 1222 10 (An implementation of NTP as a Unix system daemon called )fjt
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1611 1604 639 6 ( was built by Michael Petry and)fjt
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300 1429 712 5 (phase and frequency. Almost 1000 )fjt
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1101 1429 1149 9 ( hosts were found in a recent survey [MIL89b]; however,)fjt
300 1371 1902 14 (this survey did not cover all Internet hosts. From other reports and personal communication it)fjt
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300 1313 1938 16 (estimated that the total number is well over 2000. Several of these, synchronized to UTC via radio)fjt
2238 1313 13 0 (,)fjt
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300 1196 687 2 (secondary synchronization subnet.)fjt
300 1105 1950 14 (An implementation of NTP as a dedicated processor and control program was built by Dennis)fjt
300 1047 1851 15 (Ferguson of the University of Toronto. This device uses a 68000 processor and includes an inte)fjt
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300 872 257 1 (of Delaware.)fjt
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300 690 1889 14 (The NTP primary synchronization subnet now operating in the Internet consists of 17 primary ti)fjt
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300 574 1950 12 (servers connected to receivers for WWVB, GOES, WWV/H, CHU \(Ottawa\) and GBR \(Rugby\))fjt
300 516 1880 13 (receivers. Of these, six are gatewayed directly to national backbone networks and are intended)fjt
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300 1810 1950 14 (Most of the primary servers continuously exchange NTP messages with most of the other primary)fjt
300 1752 1903 12 (servers, so the primary synchronization subnet is almost completely connected. This provides )fjt
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300 1577 1829 12 (available stratum and smallest synchronizing distance and continues operation as a secondary )fjt
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300 1299 1950 12 (The NTP secondary synchronization subnet presently includes eight Fuzzball and many more other)fjt
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300 1066 1834 14 (to provide backup service for each other, so distribute some of their peers over stratum-\()fjt
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967 1008 1283 11 ( servers in the same set. In a typical example configuration used)fjt
300 949 1809 14 (at the University of Illinois and the University of Delaware the institution operates three str)fjt
2109 949 141 0 (atum-2)fjt
300 891 1950 15 (campus servers, each peering with two out of six stratum-1 primary servers and with each other.)fjt
300 833 1848 14 (The three campus servers in turn provide time for several stratum-3 department servers, each pe)fjt
2148 833 102 0 (ering)fjt
300 775 1841 14 (with all three campus servers. Department servers, many of which also function as file servers)fjt
2141 775 109 1 (, then)fjt
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300 516 1934 16 (As part of normal operation the Fuzzball time servers monitor delay and offset data from each o)fjt
2234 516 17 0 (f)fjt
300 457 1950 12 (their peers. Periodically, these data are collected and analyzed to construct scatter diagrams,)fjt
300 399 1862 10 (time-series diagrams and distribution functions. Scatter diagrams have proven exquisitely sens)fjt
2162 399 88 0 (itive)fjt
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652 2901 652 1988 1897 1988 1897 2901 np mto lto lto lto clip np
652 1988 translate 300 72 div dup scale
1246 300 div 541 72 div div 914 300 div 397 72 div div scale
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/basesize 160 def

/oldcex	1 def
/cex	1 def
/ratio	1 def
/pch	(*) def
/coffset basesize -0.345 mul def	% vertical offset for characters
/pcxshift 0 def

%   procedures

/checksize	% adjust font size if needed.  Stack: cex
  {
     /cex exch def
     oldcex cex ne	% scale sizes
       { 
	 /ratio cex oldcex div def
	 /TextFont TextFont ratio scalefont def
	 /PchFont PchFont ratio scalefont def
	 /coffset coffset ratio mul def
	 /oldcex cex def
       } if
  } def

/Pchar		%  the plot character.  Stack: string cex
  {
     checksize
     /pch exch def
     pch (.) eq		% replace period by bullet
       { (\267) pch copy pop } if
     pch (,) eq		% replace comma by middot
       { (\264) pch copy pop } if
     /PchFont TextFont def
     pch (*) eq pch (+) eq or  % switch to symbol font for these characters
       { /PchFont /Symbol findfont basesize oldcex mul scalefont def } if
     PchFont setfont
     pch stringwidth pop neg 2 div /pcxshift exch def
  } def

/M {moveto} def	% move to a point.  Stack: x y

/L {lineto} def % line to a point.  Stack: x y

/S {stroke} def

/P		% plot a character at a point.   Stack: x y
  {
     M			% move to the point
     pcxshift coffset rmoveto	% offset for the character
     pch show
  } def

/T		% show a text string. Stack: adj srot cex x y string
  { /str exch def
    M			% move to the point (pops x and y)
    checksize		% change size if necessary (pops cex)
    TextFont setfont
    dup rotate exch	% (moves adj to top)
    str stringwidth pop neg mul	% pops adj
    coffset rmoveto
    str show
    neg rotate
  } def

/Sub 	%add a subscript.  Stack: string srot
  {
     oldcex 0.75 mul checksize
     TextFont setfont
     dup rotate
     oldcex -0.5 mul basesize mul 0 exch rmoveto
     exch show
     oldcex 0.5 mul basesize mul 0 exch rmoveto
     neg rotate
     oldcex 4 3 div mul checksize TextFont setfont
  } def

/Sup 	%add a superscript.  Stack: string srot
  {
     oldcex 0.75 mul checksize
     TextFont setfont
     dup rotate
     oldcex 0.5 mul basesize mul 0 exch rmoveto
     exch show
     oldcex -0.5 mul basesize mul 0 exch rmoveto
     neg rotate
     oldcex 4 3 div mul checksize TextFont setfont
  } def

/F		% change the base font. Stack: fontname
  {
    /TextFont exch findfont basesize oldcex mul scalefont def
    /PchFont TextFont def
  } def

/ST		% text in Symbol font. Stack: (as for T)
  {
    /Symbol F T /Helvetica-Bold F
  } def

0.1 0.1 scale	%integer coordinates in 1/10's of a point
1 setlinecap 1 setlinejoin
/Helvetica-Bold F
%%EndProlog
%%Page: 1 1
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2010 3272 L
2011 3764 L
2011 2926 L
2012 2799 L
2012 3362 L
2013 3235 L
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2013 3362 L
2014 3017 L
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2015 3193 L
2015 3272 L
2016 3879 L
2016 3017 L
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2018 3507 L
2018 3433 L
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2020 3193 L
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S 2350 2926 M
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S 2577 3661 M
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2800 2926 L
2800 3388 L
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S 2801 3017 M
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2803 2926 L
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2804 2580 L
2804 3017 L
2805 2799 L
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2806 2580 L
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2843 3453 L
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2845 3388 L
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2846 3771 L
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2847 3305 L
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2859 3305 L
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2876 2926 L
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2879 3388 L
2880 2580 L
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2883 3593 L
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2912 3671 L
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2948 3335 L
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2951 3651 L
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2955 2926 L
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2960 3087 L
2961 3235 L
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2964 3193 L
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2965 3335 L
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2968 3087 L
2969 3193 L
2969 3017 L
2969 3553 L
2970 3472 L
2970 3235 L
2971 3305 L
2971 3593 L
2972 3087 L
S
2973 3507 M
2974 3651 L
2974 3874 L
2975 3433 L
2975 3017 L
2976 2580 L
2976 2799 L
2977 2799 L
2977 3305 L
2978 2580 L
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2986 3836 L
2986 2926 L
2987 3433 L
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2987 3472 L
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2988 3193 L
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2989 3272 L
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2990 3017 L
2991 4235 L
2991 3144 L
2992 3935 L
2992 3606 L
2992 3362 L
2993 2580 L
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2994 3144 L
2994 3087 L
2995 4602 L
2995 3490 L
2996 3411 L
2996 3913 L
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2997 3903 L
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2998 2926 L
2998 3869 L
2999 3472 L
2999 3411 L
3000 2926 L
3000 3411 L
3001 2799 L
3001 3272 L
3002 3618 L
3002 3193 L
3003 4159 L
3003 3087 L
3004 3017 L
3004 3193 L
3005 3017 L
3005 3305 L
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3299 3884 L
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3302 2799 L
3302 3874 L
3303 3926 L
3303 2580 L
3304 3433 L
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3305 3490 L
3305 3661 L
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3333 3894 L
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S 3428 2799 M
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S
3556 4149 M
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3602 3618 L
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3606 3305 L
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3641 2926 L
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3641 3593 L
3642 3433 L
3642 2799 L
3643 3087 L
3643 2799 L
3644 3017 L
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3645 3593 L
3646 3305 L
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3703 3651 L
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3781 3017 L
S 3781 3017 M
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3783 2926 L
3783 2580 L
3784 3193 L
3784 3305 L
3784 2926 L
3785 3490 L
3785 2580 L
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3787 2580 L
3787 3193 L
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3788 2799 L
3789 3017 L
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3790 2799 L
3791 3725 L
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3792 3959 L
3792 3335 L
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3793 3884 L
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3794 2926 L
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3797 3733 L
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3798 4368 L
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3799 3805 L
3800 3335 L
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3802 3017 L
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3803 3749 L
3804 3411 L
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3805 2799 L
3806 3017 L
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3808 3017 L
3808 3523 L
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3831 3661 L
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3840 3553 L
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3841 3388 L
3841 3661 L
3841 3805 L
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3843 3193 L
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3845 3733 L
3845 2799 L
3846 3792 L
3847 3235 L
3847 3651 L
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3848 3388 L
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3850 3388 L
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3851 3193 L
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3870 3699 L
3871 3472 L
3871 3553 L
3872 3144 L
3872 3362 L
3873 2580 L
3873 3193 L
3873 2926 L
3874 3681 L
3874 2926 L
3875 2580 L
3876 3017 L
3877 3017 L
3877 3235 L
3877 3661 L
3878 3017 L
3878 3472 L
3879 3193 L
3879 3651 L
3880 4124 L
3880 3235 L
3881 2799 L
3881 3305 L
3881 3193 L
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3884 4023 L
3884 2799 L
3885 3411 L
3885 3193 L
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3887 2799 L
3888 3144 L
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3889 3193 L
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3897 3144 L
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3901 3305 L
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3906 3903 L
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3907 3087 L
3907 3017 L
3908 3411 L
3908 3272 L
3908 3017 L
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3909 3193 L
3910 3235 L
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3911 3490 L
3911 3193 L
3912 3411 L
3912 2580 L
3913 3017 L
3913 3490 L
3913 3087 L
3914 3144 L
3914 3272 L
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3916 3305 L
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3917 3272 L
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3918 3453 L
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3945 3453 L
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3946 3087 L
3946 3362 L
3947 3523 L
3947 3771 L
3948 3523 L
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3949 3411 L
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3952 3017 L
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3968 3017 L
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3990 3144 L
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3992 3017 L
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3993 3017 L
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3995 3144 L
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3996 2799 L
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4000 3017 L
4000 3818 L
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4004 3335 L
4004 3305 L
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S 4010 4266 M
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4013 3671 L
4013 2799 L
4014 2926 L
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4042 3792 L
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4054 3272 L
4054 3335 L
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1900 3017 L
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1911 2580 L
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1914 2799 L
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1930 3144 L
1930 3764 L
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1932 2799 L
1933 2799 L
1934 2799 L
1935 3193 L
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1936 2799 L
1936 2580 L
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1938 2580 L
1939 2580 L
1940 2926 L
1940 3193 L
1941 3193 L
1942 3193 L
1943 3193 L
1944 2926 L
1944 3017 L
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1946 3017 L
1947 3017 L
1948 2799 L
1949 2926 L
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1952 2799 L
1953 3144 L
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1960 3144 L
1961 3144 L
1962 3144 L
1963 2799 L
1964 3017 L
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1973 3193 L
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1977 3235 L
1978 2799 L
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1984 2580 L
1985 2580 L
1985 3144 L
1986 3144 L
1987 3144 L
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1998 2926 L
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2001 3305 L
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2002 3087 L
2003 3087 L
2004 3087 L
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2006 3661 L
2006 3305 L
2007 3193 L
2008 3193 L
2009 3193 L
2009 3272 L
2010 3272 L
2011 3272 L
2011 2799 L
2012 2799 L
2013 2799 L
2014 2799 L
2015 3144 L
2016 3144 L
2016 3087 L
2017 3087 L
2018 3087 L
2019 3087 L
2020 2799 L
2020 2926 L
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2100 2799 L
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2120 3193 L
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S 2126 3017 M
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2344 2799 L
2345 2799 L
2346 2799 L
2346 2926 L
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S 2350 2580 M
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2352 3017 L
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2500 2799 L
2500 2926 L
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2525 3144 L
2526 3193 L
2526 3523 L
2527 3335 L
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2532 2926 L
2533 2926 L
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2573 2580 L
2574 2580 L
2574 3087 L
2575 3087 L
2575 3235 L
2576 3235 L
2576 3272 L
2577 3272 L
S 2577 3272 M
2577 3272 L
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2579 3272 L
2580 3272 L
2580 2580 L
2581 2580 L
2581 3017 L
2582 3017 L
2583 3017 L
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2588 3017 L
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2621 3553 L
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2625 3193 L
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2700 2799 L
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2720 3017 L
2721 3087 L
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2725 2799 L
2726 2799 L
2727 3017 L
2728 3017 L
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2733 2799 L
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2734 2926 L
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2760 2799 L
2760 3144 L
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2778 3472 L
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2782 3235 L
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2786 3017 L
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2792 2799 L
2792 3193 L
2792 3144 L
2793 3144 L
2793 2580 L
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2796 2580 L
2797 2580 L
2797 2926 L
2797 3433 L
2798 3017 L
2798 2799 L
2799 2799 L
2800 2799 L
2801 2799 L
2801 2926 L
S 2801 2926 M
2802 2926 L
2803 2799 L
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2805 2799 L
2806 2799 L
2807 2799 L
2808 2799 L
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2810 2799 L
2810 2580 L
2811 3017 L
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2876 3144 L
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2890 3272 L
2890 3193 L
2891 3305 L
2892 2926 L
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2926 2580 L
2926 3017 L
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2938 3017 L
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2943 3144 L
2943 2799 L
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2953 3335 L
2954 3335 L
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2958 2799 L
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2970 2580 L
2971 3335 L
2972 3335 L
2973 3335 L
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2975 3490 L
2976 2580 L
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2978 2580 L
2979 2580 L
2979 2926 L
2980 2926 L
2980 3305 L
2981 3305 L
2982 3305 L
2983 3305 L
2983 3235 L
2984 3235 L
2984 3305 L
2985 3305 L
2985 3144 L
2986 3144 L
2986 3017 L
2987 3017 L
2988 3017 L
2989 3017 L
2990 3144 L
2991 3144 L
2992 3144 L
2993 3144 L
2993 3193 L
2994 3193 L
2995 3388 L
2996 3433 L
2996 2799 L
2997 2799 L
2997 2580 L
2998 2580 L
2999 2580 L
3000 2580 L
3000 2799 L
3001 2799 L
3002 2799 L
3003 2799 L
3004 2580 L
3005 3017 L
3006 3017 L
3007 3235 L
3008 2926 L
3008 3335 L
3009 3235 L
3010 3235 L
3011 2580 L
3012 2580 L
3013 2580 L
3014 2580 L
3014 3087 L
3015 3087 L
3016 3087 L
3017 3087 L
3018 3087 L
3018 2580 L
3018 3453 L
3019 3453 L
3019 3305 L
3020 3490 L
3021 2580 L
3022 2580 L
3023 2580 L
3024 2580 L
3025 2580 L
3026 2580 L
S 3026 2580 M
3027 2580 L
3028 3411 L
3029 3272 L
3030 3433 L
3031 3433 L
3031 2799 L
3032 2799 L
3033 2799 L
3034 2799 L
3035 3144 L
3035 3629 L
3036 3087 L
3037 3087 L
3038 3087 L
3039 3087 L
3039 3193 L
3040 3193 L
3040 3144 L
3041 3144 L
3042 2580 L
3043 2580 L
3044 2580 L
3045 2580 L
3045 3235 L
3046 3193 L
3047 3433 L
3047 3411 L
3048 3411 L
3049 3411 L
3049 3305 L
3050 2926 L
3051 2926 L
3052 2926 L
3053 2926 L
3054 3087 L
3055 3087 L
3055 2926 L
3056 2926 L
3057 2926 L
3058 2926 L
3059 3690 L
3059 3193 L
3060 3193 L
3061 3193 L
3062 3193 L
3063 3193 L
3063 3453 L
3064 3453 L
3065 3193 L
3066 3193 L
3066 2926 L
3067 2926 L
3068 2926 L
3069 2926 L
3070 3144 L
3071 2580 L
3072 2580 L
3073 2580 L
3074 2580 L
3074 3087 L
3075 3087 L
3076 3087 L
3077 3388 L
3078 3388 L
3078 3087 L
3079 3235 L
3080 3235 L
3080 3144 L
3081 3144 L
3081 2799 L
3082 2799 L
3083 2799 L
3084 2799 L
3085 3472 L
3085 3335 L
3086 3335 L
3087 3335 L
3088 3335 L
3089 3335 L
3089 3272 L
3090 3335 L
3091 3335 L
3092 3144 L
3093 3144 L
3094 3144 L
3095 3144 L
3095 3087 L
3096 3087 L
3097 3087 L
3098 3087 L
3098 3144 L
3099 3144 L
3100 3433 L
3100 3272 L
3101 3272 L
3102 3272 L
3103 3272 L
3104 3453 L
3105 3453 L
3106 3618 L
3106 2926 L
3107 2926 L
3108 2926 L
3109 2926 L
3110 2926 L
3110 3335 L
3111 3335 L
3112 3335 L
3117 3235 L
3118 3235 L
3119 3235 L
3120 3235 L
3121 3235 L
3121 2926 L
3121 3553 L
3122 3553 L
3123 3553 L
3124 3553 L
3125 3553 L
3125 3362 L
3126 3017 L
3127 3388 L
3128 3388 L
3129 3388 L
3130 2580 L
3131 2580 L
3132 2580 L
3133 2580 L
3133 3538 L
3134 3538 L
3134 3411 L
3135 3411 L
3136 3193 L
3137 3017 L
3137 3144 L
3138 3144 L
3139 3144 L
3140 3144 L
3141 3235 L
3142 3235 L
3143 3235 L
3144 2799 L
3145 2799 L
3145 3272 L
3146 2926 L
3147 2926 L
3148 2926 L
3149 2926 L
3149 3411 L
3150 3411 L
3151 3235 L
3152 2580 L
3153 2580 L
3154 2580 L
3155 2580 L
3155 2926 L
3156 3335 L
3157 3335 L
3158 3335 L
3159 2926 L
3160 3087 L
3161 3087 L
3162 2799 L
3163 2799 L
3164 2799 L
3165 2580 L
3166 2580 L
3167 2580 L
3168 2580 L
3168 2926 L
3169 2926 L
3170 2926 L
3171 2926 L
3172 2926 L
3173 2926 L
3174 2926 L
3175 2926 L
3175 3087 L
3176 3087 L
3177 3272 L
3178 2580 L
3179 2580 L
3180 2580 L
3181 2580 L
3181 2799 L
3182 2799 L
3182 2926 L
3183 2926 L
3183 3017 L
3183 2799 L
3184 2799 L
3185 2580 L
3186 2580 L
3187 2580 L
3188 2580 L
3188 3335 L
3189 3335 L
3190 3335 L
3191 3335 L
3192 2926 L
3193 2926 L
3194 2926 L
3195 2926 L
3195 2580 L
3196 2799 L
3197 2799 L
3198 2799 L
3199 2799 L
3199 3144 L
3200 3144 L
3200 2799 L
3201 2799 L
3202 2799 L
3203 2926 L
3204 2926 L
3205 2926 L
3206 2926 L
3207 2926 L
3208 2926 L
3208 3017 L
3209 3017 L
3209 2580 L
3210 2580 L
3210 3193 L
3210 2799 L
3211 2799 L
3212 2580 L
3213 2580 L
3214 2580 L
3215 2580 L
3215 2926 L
3216 2926 L
3216 3087 L
3217 3087 L
3218 3305 L
3219 3305 L
3220 3305 L
3221 3087 L
3222 3087 L
3223 2580 L
3224 2580 L
3225 2580 L
3226 2580 L
3226 3017 L
3227 3017 L
3228 3144 L
3229 3144 L
3229 2580 L
3230 2580 L
3231 2580 L
3232 2580 L
3233 3362 L
3233 3433 L
3234 3433 L
3234 3144 L
3235 3144 L
3235 2799 L
3236 2799 L
3237 2799 L
3238 2799 L
3238 3193 L
3239 3087 L
3239 3193 L
3240 3193 L
3241 3193 L
3242 3193 L
3243 3017 L
3244 3017 L
3245 3087 L
3246 3305 L
3247 2580 L
3248 2580 L
3249 2580 L
3250 2580 L
3250 2926 L
3251 2926 L
3252 2926 L
3253 2926 L
3253 3144 L
3254 3144 L
3255 3144 L
3256 2799 L
S 3256 2799 M
3256 2580 L
3257 2580 L
3257 2926 L
3258 3388 L
3259 3235 L
3260 3235 L
3261 3235 L
3262 3235 L
3262 3144 L
3263 3144 L
3264 3144 L
3265 3144 L
3265 3272 L
3266 2799 L
3267 2799 L
3268 2580 L
3269 2580 L
3270 2580 L
3271 2580 L
3272 2580 L
3273 2580 L
3274 2926 L
3275 2926 L
3276 2926 L
3277 2926 L
3278 3507 L
3278 3017 L
3279 3017 L
3280 3017 L
3281 3017 L
3282 3017 L
3283 3017 L
3284 3017 L
3285 3017 L
3285 3087 L
3286 2580 L
3287 2580 L
3287 2799 L
3288 2799 L
3289 2799 L
3290 2799 L
3291 3193 L
3292 3193 L
3292 2799 L
3293 2799 L
3294 2799 L
3295 2799 L
3295 3087 L
3296 3087 L
3297 3087 L
3297 2926 L
3298 2926 L
3299 2926 L
3300 2926 L
3301 2580 L
3302 2580 L
3303 2580 L
3304 2580 L
3305 2580 L
3306 2580 L
3307 3411 L
3307 3507 L
3308 3507 L
3308 3193 L
3309 3193 L
3310 3193 L
3310 2580 L
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3312 2580 L
3313 2580 L
3314 2580 L
3314 3017 L
3315 3087 L
3315 2926 L
3316 2926 L
3317 2926 L
3318 2926 L
3319 2926 L
3320 2926 L
3321 2799 L
3322 2799 L
3323 2799 L
3324 2799 L
3324 2580 L
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3326 2580 L
3327 2799 L
3327 3453 L
3328 2580 L
3329 2580 L
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3332 2580 L
3333 2580 L
3334 2580 L
3334 3144 L
3335 3144 L
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3337 3144 L
3337 2580 L
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3339 2580 L
3340 3235 L
3341 3235 L
3342 3235 L
3343 3235 L
3343 3193 L
3344 3193 L
3345 3193 L
3346 3193 L
3347 3272 L
3348 3272 L
3348 2926 L
3349 2926 L
3350 2926 L
3351 2926 L
3352 2580 L
3353 3087 L
3354 2580 L
3355 2580 L
3356 2580 L
3357 2580 L
3358 2580 L
3359 3017 L
3360 3087 L
3361 3087 L
3362 3087 L
3363 3087 L
3363 3193 L
3364 3193 L
3364 3087 L
3365 3087 L
3366 3087 L
3367 3087 L
3368 2799 L
3369 2799 L
3370 2926 L
3371 2926 L
3372 2926 L
3373 2926 L
3373 3087 L
3374 2926 L
3375 2926 L
3376 2926 L
3377 2926 L
3377 3087 L
3378 3087 L
3379 3144 L
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3382 3087 L
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3384 3087 L
3384 2580 L
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3387 3193 L
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3390 2580 L
3390 3017 L
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3391 2580 L
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3395 2580 L
3395 3193 L
3395 3235 L
3396 2799 L
3396 2580 L
3397 2580 L
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3400 2580 L
3400 3087 L
3400 2799 L
3401 2799 L
3401 2580 L
3402 2580 L
3403 2799 L
3404 2799 L
3405 2799 L
3406 2799 L
3406 2580 L
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3408 2580 L
3409 2580 L
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3417 2580 L
3418 2580 L
3418 2926 L
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3420 2926 L
3421 2926 L
3421 3017 L
3422 3017 L
3422 2799 L
3423 2799 L
3423 2580 L
3424 2580 L
3425 2580 L
3426 2580 L
3427 2926 L
3428 2926 L
3429 2926 L
3430 2926 L
3430 3017 L
3431 3017 L
3432 2799 L
3433 2580 L
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3436 2580 L
3436 2799 L
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3438 2580 L
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3441 2580 L
3442 3017 L
3442 2580 L
3443 2580 L
3444 2926 L
3444 3272 L
3445 3272 L
3445 2799 L
3446 3017 L
3446 2580 L
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3700 3305 L
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3702 3272 L
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3704 3272 L
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3705 3144 L
3706 3272 L
S 3706 3272 M
3706 3272 L
3707 3272 L
3708 2799 L
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3711 2799 L
3712 3433 L
3712 2580 L
3713 2580 L
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3779 3144 L
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3865 3144 L
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3866 3388 L
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3879 3087 L
3880 3193 L
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3890 2926 L
3891 2926 L
3891 3087 L
3892 3017 L
3893 3017 L
3893 2799 L
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3897 3411 L
3898 3411 L
3898 3087 L
3899 3087 L
3899 2580 L
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3906 2580 L
3906 2799 L
3907 3144 L
3908 3144 L
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3909 3087 L
3910 3087 L
3911 3087 L
3912 3087 L
3912 3272 L
3913 3272 L
3913 3144 L
3914 3087 L
3915 3087 L
3916 3087 L
3917 2799 L
3918 2799 L
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3920 2799 L
3920 2580 L
3921 2799 L
3921 2926 L
3922 2926 L
3923 2926 L
3924 2926 L
3925 3144 L
3926 3144 L
3927 3144 L
3928 2580 L
3929 2580 L
3930 2580 L
3931 2926 L
3932 2926 L
3933 2926 L
3934 2926 L
3934 2580 L
3935 3305 L
S 3935 3305 M
3935 2799 L
3936 2799 L
3936 2580 L
3937 2580 L
3938 2580 L
3939 2580 L
3940 3087 L
3941 3507 L
3942 3507 L
3943 3087 L
3944 3087 L
3945 3087 L
3946 3087 L
3946 3017 L
3947 3017 L
3948 3017 L
3949 3087 L
3950 3087 L
3951 3087 L
3952 3087 L
3952 3388 L
3953 2580 L
3953 3017 L
3954 3017 L
3955 3017 L
3956 3017 L
3956 2799 L
3957 3017 L
3958 3017 L
3959 3017 L
3960 3017 L
3960 2799 L
3961 2799 L
3961 3388 L
3961 3087 L
3962 3144 L
3963 3144 L
3964 3144 L
3965 3144 L
3966 3235 L
3966 3144 L
3967 3144 L
3968 3144 L
3969 3144 L
3970 3144 L
3970 3017 L
3970 2799 L
3971 2799 L
3972 2799 L
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3975 3388 L
3975 3193 L
3976 2926 L
3977 2926 L
3978 2926 L
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3990 2580 L
3990 3144 L
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3996 2580 L
3996 2799 L
3997 2799 L
3998 2799 L
3999 2799 L
4000 2580 L
4000 2799 L
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4002 2799 L
4003 2926 L
4004 3305 L
4004 2580 L
4005 2580 L
4006 2580 L
4007 3087 L
4008 3087 L
4009 3087 L
4010 2799 L
4011 2799 L
4012 2799 L
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4014 2799 L
4015 2799 L
4015 3017 L
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4018 2580 L
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4020 2580 L
4021 2799 L
4022 2799 L
4023 2799 L
4024 2799 L
4025 3017 L
4026 3017 L
4027 3017 L
4028 3017 L
4029 3272 L
4030 3272 L
4031 2580 L
4032 2580 L
4033 2580 L
4034 2799 L
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4037 2799 L
4037 3144 L
4038 3144 L
4038 2926 L
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4049 3017 L
4050 3193 L
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4052 2580 L
4053 2580 L
4054 2799 L
4054 2926 L
4055 2926 L
4055 2580 L
4055 3305 L
4056 3305 L
4056 2799 L
4057 2799 L
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4061 2580 L
4062 2580 L
4063 3017 L
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4064 3017 L
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4066 3017 L
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4068 3017 L
4069 2580 L
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4072 2580 L
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4083 3017 L
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4090 2926 L
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4093 2580 L
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4096 2926 L
4097 2926 L
4097 3087 L
4098 3087 L
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4100 3087 L
4100 2799 L
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4102 2799 L
4103 2799 L
4104 2580 L
4105 2580 L
4106 2580 L
4107 3388 L
4107 3272 L
4108 3272 L
4109 3272 L
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4111 3272 L
4111 2580 L
4112 2580 L
4113 2580 L
4113 3272 L
4114 3272 L
4115 3272 L
4116 3017 L
4117 3017 L
4118 3017 L
4119 3017 L
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4120 2926 L
4121 2926 L
4122 2926 L
4123 2926 L
4123 3087 L
4124 3087 L
4125 3087 L
4126 3087 L
4127 3087 L
4128 2799 L
4129 2799 L
4130 2799 L
4131 2799 L
4131 3017 L
4132 2580 L
4132 2799 L
4133 2799 L
4134 2799 L
4135 2799 L
4136 2580 L
4137 2580 L
4138 2580 L
4138 2926 L
4139 3017 L
4140 3017 L
4141 3017 L
4142 3017 L
4142 2580 L
4143 2580 L
4144 2580 L
4144 3087 L
4145 3087 L
4146 2580 L
4147 2580 L
4148 2580 L
4149 2580 L
4149 3087 L
4150 2926 L
4151 2926 L
4152 2926 L
4153 3144 L
4154 3305 L
4155 3305 L
4156 2799 L
4157 2799 L
4158 2799 L
4159 2799 L
4159 2580 L
4160 2580 L
4161 2580 L
S 4161 2580 M
4161 2580 L
4162 2580 L
4162 3144 L
4163 3144 L
4164 3144 L
4165 3144 L
4166 3017 L
4166 2580 L
4167 2580 L
4168 2580 L
4169 2580 L
4170 2580 L
4170 3235 L
4171 3235 L
4172 3235 L
4173 2926 L
4174 2926 L
4175 2926 L
4176 2799 L
4177 2799 L
4178 2799 L
4179 2799 L
4179 3017 L
4180 3017 L
4181 2580 L
4182 2580 L
4183 2580 L
4184 2580 L
4185 2580 L
4186 3017 L
4186 3235 L
4187 3235 L
4188 3305 L
4188 3144 L
4189 3144 L
4190 3144 L
4191 3144 L
4192 3144 L
4193 3144 L
4193 3272 L
4194 3272 L
4194 2799 L
4195 2799 L
4195 2580 L
4196 2580 L
4197 2580 L
4198 2580 L
4199 2926 L
4200 2926 L
4200 3272 L
4201 3087 L
4202 3087 L
4203 3087 L
4204 3087 L
4204 3017 L
4205 3017 L
4206 3017 L
4207 3017 L
4207 2580 L
4208 2580 L
4209 2580 L
4210 2580 L
4211 3087 L
4212 3235 L
4213 3235 L
4213 3553 L
4214 3553 L
4214 2580 L
4215 2580 L
4216 2580 L
4217 2580 L
4218 2580 L
4219 2580 L
4219 3087 L
4220 3087 L
4221 3087 L
4222 3087 L
4223 3087 L
4223 2799 L
4224 2799 L
4225 2799 L
4226 2799 L
4227 2799 L
4228 2799 L
4229 2799 L
4229 3087 L
4230 2580 L
4231 2580 L
4232 2580 L
4233 2926 L
4234 2926 L
4235 2926 L
4235 2580 L
4236 2580 L
4237 2580 L
4238 2580 L
4239 3087 L
4240 2799 L
4241 2799 L
4241 2926 L
4242 2926 L
4243 2926 L
4244 2926 L
4245 2926 L
4245 3193 L
4246 3193 L
4246 2580 L
4247 2580 L
4248 2580 L
4249 2580 L
4250 2580 L
4250 3017 L
4251 3017 L
4251 3087 L
4252 3087 L
4253 3087 L
4254 3087 L
4255 3193 L
4255 3144 L
4256 3144 L
4257 3017 L
4257 2926 L
4258 2926 L
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4261 2580 L
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4267 2580 L
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4270 3087 L
4271 3087 L
4272 3087 L
4273 3087 L
4274 3144 L
4275 3144 L
4275 3235 L
4276 3235 L
4276 3017 L
4277 3017 L
4278 2580 L
4279 2580 L
4280 2580 L
4281 2580 L
4282 2580 L
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4286 2580 L
4287 2580 L
4288 3272 L
4288 2580 L
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4291 2580 L
4292 3017 L
4293 2580 L
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4296 2580 L
4297 2580 L
4298 3305 L
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4302 3305 L
4303 3235 L
4303 3193 L
4304 3193 L
4305 3193 L
4306 2580 L
4307 2580 L
4308 2580 L
4308 3362 L
4309 3362 L
4310 3362 L
4310 3017 L
4311 3017 L
4312 3017 L
4312 2799 L
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4314 2799 L
4315 2799 L
4316 3144 L
4316 2580 L
4317 2580 L
4318 2580 L
4319 2580 L
4320 2799 L
4321 2799 L
4321 2580 L
4322 2926 L
4322 3087 L
4323 3087 L
4324 3087 L
4325 2799 L
4326 2799 L
4327 2799 L
4328 2799 L
4329 2799 L
4330 2799 L
4330 2580 L
4331 2580 L
4332 2580 L
4333 2580 L
4334 2580 L
4335 2580 L
4335 3235 L
4336 3235 L
4337 3235 L
4337 2926 L
4338 2926 L
4339 2926 L
4340 2926 L
4341 3144 L
4342 3144 L
4343 2580 L
4344 2580 L
4345 3388 L
4345 3193 L
4346 3193 L
4347 3193 L
4348 3453 L
4349 3453 L
4350 3453 L
4351 3453 L
4351 3567 L
4352 3580 L
4352 3661 L
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4355 3362 L
4355 2799 L
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4356 2580 L
4357 2580 L
4358 2580 L
4359 2580 L
4360 3335 L
4360 3144 L
4361 3144 L
4361 2799 L
4362 3411 L
4363 3305 L
4364 3305 L
4365 3305 L
4366 3305 L
4367 3305 L
4367 3411 L
4368 3411 L
4368 3235 L
4369 3235 L
4370 3235 L
4370 3388 L
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4371 3272 L
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4373 3272 L
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4375 3235 L
4375 2926 L
4376 2926 L
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4379 3490 L
4379 2580 L
4380 2580 L
4381 2580 L
4381 2926 L
4382 2926 L
4383 2926 L
4384 2926 L
4385 3335 L
4386 3335 L
S 4386 3335 M
4386 3335 L
4387 3335 L
4388 3335 L
4389 3144 L
4390 3144 L
4390 3362 L
4391 3362 L
4392 3362 L
4393 3567 L
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300 2841 1886 15 (offsets, respectively, between two primary time servers over an interval of about a week in U)fjt
2186 2841 64 0 (TC)fjt
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300 2666 1901 14 (cases the reduction in mean offset measurement error is about tenfold. However, the most drama)fjt
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2091 2608 160 1 (axes are)fjt
300 2549 421 3 (most useful. Figure 8)fjt
721 2549 1529 14 ( shows such a function for the above path and the absolute raw offsets \(upper)fjt
300 2491 1840 15 (curve\) and filtered offsets \(lower curve\), from which it is apparent that the maximum error aft)fjt
2140 2491 110 1 (er the)fjt
300 2433 1856 20 (filter is less than about 30 ms for all but about one percent of the samples and less than about 5)fjt
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300 2375 305 2 (for all samples.)fjt
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300 2164 1950 14 (The IRIG-H timecode format established in 1970 and used since then by NBS/NIST radio broadcast)fjt
300 2106 1950 14 (services does not include year information, which must be entered manually after reboot at the)fjt
300 2047 1909 16 (primary time servers. While the year information, once entered, rolls over at the new year, it h)fjt
2209 2047 41 0 (as)fjt
300 1989 1826 12 (sometimes happened that the year was entered incorrectly after reboot, with surprisingly disr)fjt
2126 1989 125 0 (uptive)fjt
300 1931 1775 13 (effects on file archiving systems. In addition, the current timecode formats do not include)fjt
2075 1931 175 1 ( advance)fjt
300 1873 1844 13 (notice of leap-second insertion. Clearly, a revised timecode format including these data is ne)fjt
2144 1873 107 0 (eded.)fjt
300 1814 1950 14 (In fact, the recently introduced NBS telephone time service [NBS88] does include both the year)fjt
300 1756 758 3 (and advance leap-second information.)fjt
300 1634 1950 12 (The current mechanism of time delivery using WWVB, WWV and GOES requires relatively)fjt
300 1576 1812 12 (expensive timecode receivers subject to occasional disruption due to propagation path or tran)fjt
2112 1576 138 0 (smitter)fjt
300 1517 1950 12 (failure. Radionavigation systems such as LORAN-C and the Global Positioning System \(GPS\) are)fjt
300 1459 1898 13 (capable of delivering accurate time and frequency information over major portions of the wor)fjt
2198 1459 53 0 (ld;)fjt
300 1401 1950 11 (however, these systems do not include an unambiguous timecode modulation and appropriate)fjt
300 1343 1920 16 (receivers are not yet available. An agenda should be pursued to provide a precise timecode as pa)fjt
2220 1343 30 0 (rt)fjt
300 1284 361 2 (of normal service.)fjt
300 1162 1815 12 (As experience accumulates, improvements are being made continuously to the filtering and se)fjt
2115 1162 135 0 (lection)fjt
300 1104 1876 13 (algorithms described in this paper. For example, a possible way to improve accuracy involves)fjt
2176 1104 74 1 ( the)fjt
300 1046 1823 12 (combination of selected peer offsets and computing the ensemble offset using techniques sug)fjt
2123 1046 127 0 (gested)fjt
300 987 1931 11 (in [BLA74]. Another improvement involves the dynamic activation of selected peer association)fjt
2231 987 19 0 (s)fjt
300 929 1790 13 (when other peer associations become unreachable. The intent of this suggestion is to furthe)fjt
2090 929 160 1 (r reduce)fjt
300 871 1834 17 (the polling overheads when a large number of possible peers are available, but only a few are n)fjt
2134 871 116 0 (eeded)fjt
300 813 562 2 (for reliable synchronization.)fjt
300 690 1950 15 (At present, NTP support is available only for Fuzzball and Unix systems. Support is needed for)fjt
300 632 1950 11 (other systems, including personal workstations of various manufacture. While NTP has been)fjt
300 574 1838 14 (evolved within the Internet protocol suite, there is obvious application to the ISO protocol su)fjt
2138 574 113 1 (ite, in)fjt
300 516 1950 13 (particular the protocols of the connectionless \(CNLS\) branch of that suite. Perhaps the most)fjt
300 457 1823 14 (attractive methodology would be to integrate NTP functions directly into the ES-IS and IS-IS r)fjt
2123 457 128 0 (outing)fjt
300 399 895 4 (functions and network management systems.)fjt
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493 2748 664 5 (Bertsekas, D., and R. Gallager. )fjt
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1157 2748 307 1 (Data Networks)fjt
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1463 2748 787 4 (. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ,)fjt
375 2690 113 0 (1987.)fjt
300 2595 195 1 ([BLA74] )fjt
495 2595 364 3 (Blair, B.E. \(Ed.\). )fjt
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860 2595 972 5 (Time and Frequency Theory and Fundamentals)fjt
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1832 2595 419 3 (. National Bureau of)fjt
375 2536 1312 7 (Standards Monograph 140, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1974.)fjt
300 2441 198 1 ([BRA80] )fjt
498 2441 1506 11 (Braun, W.B. Short term frequency effects in networks of coupled oscillators. )fjt
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2004 2441 246 1 (IEEE Trans.)fjt
375 2382 578 2 (Communications COM-28, 8)fjt
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953 2382 556 3 ( \(August 1980\), 1269-1275.)fjt
300 2287 195 1 ([COL88] )fjt
495 2287 1309 10 (Cole, R., and C. Foxcroft. An experiment in clock synchronisation. )fjt
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1804 2287 446 2 (The Computer Journal)fjt
375 2229 50 0 (31)fjt
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425 2229 400 3 (, 6 \(1988\), 496-502.)fjt
300 2133 223 1 ([DAR81a] )fjt
523 2133 1727 8 (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. Internet Control Message Protocol.)fjt
375 2075 1875 9 (DARPA Network Working Group Report RFC-792, U.S.C. Information Sciences Institute,)fjt
375 2017 338 1 (September 1981.)fjt
300 1921 226 1 ([DAR81b] )fjt
526 1921 1724 8 (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. Internet Protocol. DARPA Network)fjt
375 1863 1798 9 (Working Group Report RFC-791, U.S.C. Information Sciences Institute, September 1981.)fjt
300 1767 195 1 ([GUS84] )fjt
495 1767 1755 14 (Gusella, R., and S. Zatti. TEMPO - A network time controller for a distributed Berkeley)fjt
375 1709 302 2 (UNIX system. )fjt
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677 1709 1452 7 (IEEE Distributed Processing Technical Committee Newsletter 6, NoSI-2)fjt
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2129 1709 121 1 ( \(June)fjt
375 1651 430 4 (1984\), 7-15. Also in: )fjt
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805 1651 582 3 (Proc. Summer 1984 USENIX)fjt
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1386 1651 574 5 ( \(Salt Lake City, June 1984\).)fjt
300 1555 217 1 ([GUS85a] )fjt
517 1555 1733 11 (Gusella, R., and S. Zatti. The Berkeley UNIX 4.3BSD time synchronization protocol:)fjt
375 1497 1875 9 (protocol specification. Technical Report UCB/CSD 85/250, University of California, Berkeley,)fjt
375 1438 216 1 (June 1985.)fjt
300 1343 220 1 ([GUS85b] )fjt
520 1343 1730 12 (Gusella, R., and S. Zatti. An election algorithm for a distributed clock synchronization)fjt
375 1285 1875 9 (program. Technical Report UCB/CSD 86/275, University of California, Berkeley, December)fjt
375 1227 113 0 (1985.)fjt
300 1131 198 1 ([HAL84] )fjt
498 1131 1752 11 (Halpern, J.Y., B. Simons, R. Strong and D. Dolly. Fault-tolerant clock synchronization.)fjt
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375 1073 1548 9 (Proc. Third Annual ACM Sympos. on Principles of Distributed Computing)fjt
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1923 1073 328 2 ( \(August 1984\),)fjt
375 1014 154 0 (89-102.)fjt
300 919 195 1 ([KOP87] )fjt
495 919 1755 10 (Kopetz, H., and W. Ochsenreiter. Clock synchronization in distributed real-time systems.)fjt
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375 861 618 4 (IEEE Trans. Computers C-36, )fjt
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993 861 531 3 (8 \(August 1987\), 933-939.)fjt
300 765 206 1 ([LAM78] )fjt
506 765 1487 13 (Lamport, L., Time, clocks and the ordering of events in a distributed system. )fjt
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1994 765 257 1 (Comm. ACM)fjt
375 707 100 1 (21, 7)fjt
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475 707 445 3 ( \(July 1978\), 558-565.)fjt
300 611 206 1 ([LAM85] )fjt
506 611 1744 11 (Lamport, L., and P.M. Melliar-Smith. Synchronizing clocks in the presence of faults.)fjt
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375 553 240 2 (JACM 32, 1)fjt
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615 553 467 3 ( \(January 1985\), 52-78.)fjt
300 457 179 1 ([LIN80] )fjt
479 457 1664 10 (Lindsay, W.C., and A.V. Kantak. Network synchronization of random signals. )fjt
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375 399 719 3 (Trans. Communications COM-28, 8)fjt
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1094 399 556 3 ( \(August 1980\), 1260-1266.)fjt
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498 2839 1752 11 (Lundelius, J., and N.A. Lynch. A new fault-tolerant algorithm for clock synchronization.)fjt
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375 2781 1548 9 (Proc. Third Annual ACM Sympos. on Principles of Distributed Computing)fjt
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375 2722 129 0 (75-88.)fjt
300 2626 209 1 ([MAR85] )fjt
509 2626 1636 12 (Marzullo, K., and S. Owicki. Maintaining the time in a distributed system. )fjt
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2145 2626 105 0 (ACM)fjt
375 2568 643 4 (Operating Systems Review 19, 3)fjt
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1018 2568 395 3 ( \(July 1985\), 44-54.)fjt
300 2471 187 1 ([MIL81] )fjt
487 2471 1763 10 (Mills, D.L. Time Synchronization in DCNET Hosts. DARPA Internet Project Report)fjt
375 2413 1001 4 (IEN-173, COMSAT Laboratories, February 1981.)fjt
300 2316 209 1 ([MIL83a] )fjt
509 2316 1741 9 (Mills, D.L. Internet Delay Experiments. DARPA Network Working Group Report)fjt
375 2258 970 4 (RFC-889, M/A-COM Linkabit, December 1983.)fjt
300 2161 212 1 ([MIL83b] )fjt
512 2161 1738 9 (Mills, D.L. DCN local-network protocols. DARPA Network Working Group Report)fjt
375 2103 970 4 (RFC-891, M/A-COM Linkabit, December 1983.)fjt
300 2006 209 1 ([MIL85a] )fjt
509 2006 1741 9 (Mills, D.L. Algorithms for synchronizing network clocks. DARPA Network Working)fjt
375 1948 1267 6 (Group Report RFC-956, M/A-COM Linkabit, September 1985.)fjt
300 1851 212 1 ([MIL85b] )fjt
512 1851 1738 9 (Mills, D.L. Experiments in network clock synchronization. DARPA Network Working)fjt
375 1793 1267 6 (Group Report RFC-957, M/A-COM Linkabit, September 1985.)fjt
300 1696 209 1 ([MIL85c] )fjt
509 1696 1741 10 (Mills, D.L. Network Time Protocol \(NTP\). DARPA Network Working Group Report)fjt
375 1638 979 4 (RFC-958, M/A-COM Linkabit, September 1985.)fjt
300 1542 187 1 ([MIL88] )fjt
487 1542 510 4 (Mills, D.L. The fuzzball. )fjt
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997 1542 772 4 (Proc. ACM SIGCOMM 88 Symposium)fjt
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375 1483 321 1 (1988\), 115-122.)fjt
300 1387 209 1 ([MIL89a] )fjt
509 1387 1741 9 (Mills, D.L. Network Time Protocol \(Version 2\) specification and implementation.)fjt
375 1329 1875 10 (DARPA Network Working Group Report RFC-1119, University of Delaware, September 1989.)fjt
300 1232 212 1 ([MIL89b] )fjt
512 1232 1738 12 (Mills, D.L. Measured performance of the Network Time Protocol in the Internet system.)fjt
375 1174 1859 10 (DARPA Network Working Group Report RFC-1128, University of Delaware, October 1989.)fjt
300 1077 187 1 ([MIT80] )fjt
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375 1019 343 1 (synchronization. )fjt
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718 1019 839 4 (IEEE Trans. Communications COM-28, 8)fjt
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375 2338 1468 8 (Science Technical Report TR 86-735, Cornell University, February 1986.)fjt
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300 1954 176 1 ([TRI86] )fjt
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